The primary use of the Greek alphabet has always been to write the Greek language and related dialects (including Ancient Macedonian). However, at various times and in various places, it has also been used to write other languages. Early examples: Some Narbonese Gaulish inscriptions in southern France use the Greek alphabet (c300 BC). The Hebrew text of the Bible was written in Greek in Origen's He ...

See also:

Greek alphabet, Greek alphabet - Main table, Greek alphabet - Letter combinations and diphthongs, Greek alphabet - Ligatures, Greek alphabet - History, Greek alphabet - Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages, Greek alphabet - Greek encodings, Greek alphabet - Greek in Unicode, Greek alphabet - Bibliography, Greek alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Greek alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Greek alphabet - Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages

The primary use of the Greek alphabet has always been to write the Greek language and related dialects (including Ancient Macedonian). However, at various times and in various places, it has also been used to write other languages. Early examples: Some Narbonese Gaulish inscriptions in southern France use the Greek alphabet (c300 BC). The Hebrew text of the Bible was written in Greek in Origen's He ...

See also:

Greek alphabet, Greek alphabet - Main table, Greek alphabet - Obsolete letters, Greek alphabet - Letter combinations and diphthongs, Greek alphabet - Ligatures, Greek alphabet - History, Greek alphabet - Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages, Greek alphabet - Greek encodings, Greek alphabet - Greek in Unicode, Greek alphabet - Bibliography, Greek alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Greek alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Greek alphabet - Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages

The French are a Western European people whose origins, for the most part, trace back to the mingling of pre-Celtic peoples, the Celts, the Romans, and some Germanic peoples. In the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Their lands were conquered in 58-51 BC by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar. The area then became ...

See also:

French people, French people - History, French people - Diaspora, French people - Language

Read more here: » French people: Encyclopedia II - French people - History

In Gaulish, mapos means a young boy or (more rarely) a son. The -on- particle is frequently, but not exclusively, a divinising one. Besides the theonym Maponos, the root mapos is found in personal names such as Mapodia, Mapillus, and Maponius; mapo is also found in the Carjac inscription (RIG L-86). The root is Proto-Indo-European *makwos. (Delamarre 2003 pp.216-217). In Insular Celtic languages, the same root is found in Welsh, Cornish and Breton mab mea ...

See also:

Maponos, Maponos - Etymology of the Name, Maponos - Evidence for Maponos, Maponos - Was this god the British Apollo?, Maponos - Later versions of Maponos, Maponos - Welsh Mythology, Maponos - Irish Mythology, Maponos - Bibliography

Read more here: » Maponos: Encyclopedia II - Maponos - Etymology of the Name

The indigenous populations of Britain and Ireland today are primarily descended from the ancient peoples that have always inhabited these lands. As to their culture, little is known but remnants remain primarily in the naming of certain geographical features, such as the rivers Clyde, Tamar, Thames and Tyne. By the Roman period most of the inhabitants of the isles of Ireland and Great Britain (the ancient Britons) were speaking Goidelic or Brythonic languages, close counterparts to Gaulish languages spoken on the European mainland. Hi ...

See also:

Celt, Celt - Development of the term Celt, Celt - Population genetics, Celt - Origins and geographical distribution, Celt - Celts in Ireland and Britain, Celt - Roman influence, Celt - Examples of Romanization, Celt - Celtic Christianity, Celt - Celts pushed west by Germanic migration, Celt - Celtic social system and arts, Celt - Celtic Religous Patterns, Celt - Celts as head-hunters, Celt - Names for Celts, Celt - The name Gauls, Celt - The word Welsh, Celt - The name Celts, Celt - Endnotes

Read more here: » Celt: Encyclopedia II - Celt - Celts in Ireland and Britain

The indigenous populations of Britain and Ireland today are primarily descended from the ancient peoples that have always inhabited these lands. As to their culture, little is known but remnants remain primarily in the naming of certain geographical features, such as the rivers Clyde, Tamar, Thames and Tyne. By the Roman period most of the inhabitants of the isles of Ireland and Great Britain (the ancient Britons) were speaking Goidelic or Brythonic languages, close counterparts to Gaulish languages spoken on the European mainland. Hi ...

See also:

Celt, Celt - Development of the term Celt, Celt - Population genetics, Celt - Origins and geographical distribution, Celt - Celts in Ireland and Britain, Celt - Roman influence, Celt - Examples of Romanization, Celt - Celtic Christianity, Celt - Celts pushed west by Germanic migration, Celt - Celtic social system and arts, Celt - Celtic Religious Patterns, Celt - Celts as head-hunters, Celt - Names for Celts, Celt - The name Gauls, Celt - The word Welsh, Celt - The name Celts, Celt - Bibliography

Read more here: » Celt: Encyclopedia II - Celt - Celts in Ireland and Britain

Celtic mythology can be divided into a number of distinct, if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of the Celtic languages: Ancient Celtic Ancient Gaulish and British deities Goidelic Irish mythology Mythological Cycle Ulster Cycle Fenian cycle Historical Cycle Scottish mythology and folklore Manx mythology and folklore Insular Brythonic Welsh mythology Cornish mythology and folklore Breton mythology and folklore ...

See also:

Celtic mythology, Celtic mythology - Historical sources, Celtic mythology - Julius Caesar’s comments on Celtic Religion and their significance, Celtic mythology - Branches of Celtic mythology, Celtic mythology - Celtic deities, Celtic mythology - The gods of the ancient Celts, Celtic mythology - The gods of Ireland, Celtic mythology - The gods of Wales, Celtic mythology - The Dagda, Celtic mythology - The Morrígan, Celtic mythology - Belenus, Celtic mythology - Lúgh/Lug, Celtic mythology - Other gods, Celtic mythology - Temples, Celtic mythology - Celtic worship, Celtic mythology - The druids, Celtic mythology - Significance of Prophecy in Druidic Ritual, Celtic mythology - Modern remnants, Celtic mythology - Druidism?

Read more here: » Celtic mythology: Encyclopedia II - Celtic mythology - Branches of Celtic mythology

Celtic mythology can be divided into a number of distinct, if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of the Celtic languages: Ancient Celtic Ancient Gaulish and British deities Goidelic Irish mythology Mythological Cycle Ulster Cycle Fenian cycle Historical Cycle Scottish mythology Manx mythology Insular Brythonic Welsh mythology Cornish mythology Breton mythology ...

See also:

Celtic mythology, Celtic mythology - Historical sources, Celtic mythology - Julius Caesar’s comments on Celtic Religion and their significance, Celtic mythology - Branches of Celtic mythology, Celtic mythology - Celtic deities, Celtic mythology - The gods of the ancient Celts, Celtic mythology - The gods of Ireland, Celtic mythology - The gods of Wales, Celtic mythology - The Dagda, Celtic mythology - The Morrígan, Celtic mythology - Belenus, Celtic mythology - Lúgh/Lug, Celtic mythology - Other gods, Celtic mythology - Temples, Celtic mythology - Celtic worship, Celtic mythology - The druids, Celtic mythology - Significance of Prophecy in Druidic Ritual, Celtic mythology - Modern remnants, Celtic mythology - Druidism?, Celtic mythology - Books on Celtic Mythology

Read more here: » Celtic mythology: Encyclopedia II - Celtic mythology - Branches of Celtic mythology

P-Celtic: The Gaulish-Brittonic language from which Cornish, Breton and Welsh descend.

(See also: P-Celtic, Magic, Shamanism, Paganism, Wicca)

A bard is a poet or singer, in religious or feudal contexts. Bard - Etymology. The word is a loanword from Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2: "to raise the voice; praise". The word entered the West Germanic languages twice. The first recorded example is in 1449 from the Scottish Gaelic language into the Scots Language, denoting an itinerant musician, usually with a contemptuous connotation. A Scots ordnance of ca. 1500 orders that Including:

Bard - Etymology Bard - Uses

Read more here: » Bard: Encyclopedia - Bard

The pillar is made of a type of limestone called "pierre de Saint-Leu-d'Esserent", from Saint-Leu, Oise, France. The original pillar would have been 5.24m high, 0.91m wide at the base and 0.74m wide at the top. (Saragoza 2003). It is formed in four tiers. Although the order from top to bottom is reasonably certain from the relative sizes of the blocks, we do not know the rotational order in which ...

See also:

Pillar of the Boatmen, Pillar of the Boatmen - Inscription, Pillar of the Boatmen - Description, Pillar of the Boatmen - Original Location, Pillar of the Boatmen - History of the Pillar, Pillar of the Boatmen - Bibliography

Read more here: » Pillar of the Boatmen: Encyclopedia II - Pillar of the Boatmen - Description

The word is a loanword from Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2: "to raise the voice; praise". The word entered the West Germanic languages twice. The first recorded example is in 1449 from the Scottish Gaelic language into the Scots Language, denoting an itinerant musician, usually with a contemptuous connotation. A Scots ordnance of ca. 1500 orders that "All vagabundis, fulis, bardis, scudlaris, and siclike idill pepill, sall be brint on the cheek". The word subsequently entered the English language ...

See also:

Bard, Bard - Etymology, Bard - Uses

Read more here: » Bard: Encyclopedia II - Bard - Etymology

Toulouse and Aquitaine (as well as Gascony) were once again part of the kingdom of the Franks. Following his victory, Pippin the Short died in 768 and was followed by his sons Charlemagne and Carloman. As a result of this event, Hunald, son of the late Duke Waifer, raised an insurrection against Frankish power in Aquitaine. Charlemagne soon intervened and defeated him. In 771 Carloman died and Charlemagne was left as the only ruler of the Frankish realm. In 778 Charlemagne led his army into Spain against the Arabs. On his way back there happ ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine

Due to the fragmentary attestation widely diverging interpretations are possible. The suggested historical interpretations of Macedonian include (Mallory and Adams (1997), p. 361): a Greek dialect mixed with Illyrian languages or the Thracian language, suggested by Kretschmer (1896) and E. Schwyzer (1959) a Greek dialect with a non-Indo-European substratal influence, suggested by M .Sakellariou (1983) an Illyrian dialect mixed with Greek (suggested by K. O. Müller (1825) and by G. Bonfante 1987) an independent Indo-European language close to Greek, Thracian and Phrygian languages ...

See also:

Ancient Macedonian language, Ancient Macedonian language - Properties, Ancient Macedonian language - Classification, Ancient Macedonian language - Graeco-Macedonian Group, Ancient Macedonian language - Ancient Greek dialect, Ancient Macedonian language - Independent Palaeo-Balkan language, Ancient Macedonian language - Classical sources, Ancient Macedonian language - Adoption of the Attic dialect, Ancient Macedonian language - Sample glossary

Read more here: » Ancient Macedonian language: Encyclopedia II - Ancient Macedonian language - Classification

The Continental Celtic calendar as reconstructed from the calendars of Coligny and Villards d'Heria had the following properties: it was a lunisolar calendar, attempting to synchronize the solar year and the lunar month. the months were lunar. Scholars disagree as to whether the start of the month was the new moon or the full moon. the common lunar year contained 354 or 355 days. the calendar year began with Samonios, which is usually assumed to correspond to Old Irish Samhain, giving an autumn ...

See also:

Coligny calendar, Coligny calendar - System, Coligny calendar - Gaulish calendar in historical sources, Coligny calendar - Pliny the Elder, Coligny calendar - Julius Caesar, Coligny calendar - Months, Coligny calendar - Bibliography

Read more here: » Coligny calendar: Encyclopedia II - Coligny calendar - System

The end of the 11th century marked the departure of the Raymond IV count to the crusades. Various succession wars followed, besieging Toulouse several times. In 1119, the Toulouse population proclaimed Alphonse Jourdain count. Alphonse Jourdain, willing to be grateful to his people, reduced the taxes immediately. With the death of the count, an administration of 8 "capitulaires" was created. Under the direction of the count, they had the responsibility of regulating the exchanges and making sure the laws were applied. ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th

The end of Carolinians marked the beginning of Feudality. At the beginning of the millennium, the drifting attitude of the clergy and the confiscation of the Church by the Toulouse administration initiated a degradation of the worship. The Saint-Sernin church, the Daurade basilica and the Saint-Etienne cathedral were not maintained properly. New religious currents appeared, like the Clunis reform. The Izarn bishop, helped by the pope Gregoire VII, tried to put everything back in order. He gave the Daurade Basilica to the clunis ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th

By the end of the 9th century, Toulouse had become the capital of an independent county, the county of Toulouse, ruled by the dynasty founded by Frédelon, who in theory was under the sovereignty of the king of France, but in practice was totally independent. The counts of Toulouse had to fight to maintain their position at first. They were mostly challenged by the dynasty of the counts of Auvergne, ruling over the northeastern part of the former Aquitaine, who claimed the county of Toulouse as their own, and even temporarily ousted the coun ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps

Catharism is a doctrine coming from Bulgaria, professing the separation of the material and the spiritual existences. It conflicts with the orthodox confession. Called "heretics", the Cathares found a strong audience in the south of France, and during the 12th century. Simon de Montfort tried to exterminate them. Toulouse was reached by the Cathare doctrine too. The "white" orthodoxes pursued the "black" heretics in the streets of the city. The Foulques abbot took advantage of this because the ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th

The 15th century began with the creation of the Parliament by Charles VII. Promising an exemption of taxes, the King reinforced his influence and defied the Capitouls administration. Invested with the rights of jurisdiction, the Parliament gained its political independence thereafter. This century is also the stage of many food shortages. The roads were worn and unreliable, and Toulouse experienced a terrible fire in 1463. The dwellings located between the current Alsace-Lorraine street and the Garonne river were decimated. The city encounte ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th

The French Revolution is a major event in the Toulouse history. It changed the role of the city, as well as its political and social structure. The city was one of many spectators of the Parisian movement. The on-coming of the protests of July 14, 1789 had minor repercussions, punctuated by some plundering. Five months later, when the Old Regime was abolished, a new order took over. The members of the Parliament and the Capitouls (see 12th) fought to preserve their privileges, they manifested on September 25, and hardly received any support from a p ...

See also:

History of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times, History of Toulouse - 118 BC - AD 418: Roman period, History of Toulouse - 418-508: Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, History of Toulouse - 508-768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 768-877: Carolingian Franks and the kingdom of Aquitaine, History of Toulouse - 877-10th: county of Toulouse's first steps, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 11th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 12th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 13th to 14th, History of Toulouse - Late Middle Ages: 15th to 16th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 17th, History of Toulouse - Renaissance: 18th, History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th, History of Toulouse - Modern Day

Read more here: » History of Toulouse: Encyclopedia II - History of Toulouse - Revolution: 19th