Hydrochloric acid in high concentrations forms acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution have a corrosive effect on human tissue, potentially damaging respiratory organs, eyes, skin and intestines. Upon mixing hydrochloric acid with common oxidizing chemicals, such as bleach (NaClO) or permanganate (KMnO4), the toxic gas chlorine is produced. To minimize the risks while working with hydrochloric acid, appropriate precautions should be taken. For example, never add water to the acid, as the water will boil; add acid to the water instead. See references for details. D ...

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Hydrochloric acid, Hydrochloric acid - History, Hydrochloric acid - Chemistry, Hydrochloric acid - Physical properties, Hydrochloric acid - Production, Hydrochloric acid - Direct synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Organic synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Industrial market, Hydrochloric acid - Applications, Hydrochloric acid - Regeneration of ion exchangers, Hydrochloric acid - pH control and neutralization, Hydrochloric acid - Pickling of steel, Hydrochloric acid - Production of inorganic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Production of organic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Other applications, Hydrochloric acid - Hydrochloric acid and living organisms, Hydrochloric acid - Physiology, Hydrochloric acid - Pathophysiology and pathology, Hydrochloric acid - Chemical weapons, Hydrochloric acid - Safety, Hydrochloric acid - Related chemical substances, Hydrochloric acid - Related topics

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Hydrochloric acid - Physiology. Hydrochloric acid constitutes the majority of gastric acid, the human digestive fluid. In a complex process and at a large energetic burden, it is secreted by parietal cells (also known as oxyntic cells). These cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the HCl is secreted into the lumen of the stomach. They are part of the epithelial fundic glands (also known as oxyntic glands) in the stomach. ...

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Hydrochloric acid, Hydrochloric acid - History, Hydrochloric acid - Chemistry, Hydrochloric acid - Physical properties, Hydrochloric acid - Production, Hydrochloric acid - Direct synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Organic synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Industrial market, Hydrochloric acid - Applications, Hydrochloric acid - Regeneration of ion exchangers, Hydrochloric acid - pH control and neutralization, Hydrochloric acid - Pickling of steel, Hydrochloric acid - Production of inorganic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Production of organic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Other applications, Hydrochloric acid - Hydrochloric acid and living organisms, Hydrochloric acid - Physiology, Hydrochloric acid - Pathophysiology and pathology, Hydrochloric acid - Chemical weapons, Hydrochloric acid - Safety, Hydrochloric acid - Related chemical substances, Hydrochloric acid - Related topics

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Hydrochloric acid is a strong inorganic acid that is used in many industrial processes. The application often determines the required product quality. Hydrochloric acid - Regeneration of ion exchangers. An important application of high-quality hydrochloric acid is the regeneration of ion exchange resins. Cation exchange is widely used to remove ions such as Na+ and Ca2+ from aqueous solutions, producing demineralized water. Na+ is replaced by H3O+ Ca2+ is replaced ...

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Hydrochloric acid, Hydrochloric acid - History, Hydrochloric acid - Chemistry, Hydrochloric acid - Physical properties, Hydrochloric acid - Production, Hydrochloric acid - Direct synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Organic synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Industrial market, Hydrochloric acid - Applications, Hydrochloric acid - Regeneration of ion exchangers, Hydrochloric acid - pH control and neutralization, Hydrochloric acid - Pickling of steel, Hydrochloric acid - Production of inorganic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Production of organic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Other applications, Hydrochloric acid - Hydrochloric acid and living organisms, Hydrochloric acid - Physiology, Hydrochloric acid - Pathophysiology and pathology, Hydrochloric acid - Chemical weapons, Hydrochloric acid - Safety, Hydrochloric acid - Related chemical substances, Hydrochloric acid - Related topics

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Coca-Cola is the best-selling soft drink in most countries. Nevertheless, there are some places like New York state in the United States of America, where Pepsi leads the market; Texas, in the USA, where Dr. Pepper is the number one soft drink; and Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Prince Edward Island in Canada, where Pepsi is the market leader.[citation needed] In Peru,Inca Kola, the "national beverage" (independently produced until 1999, when Coca-Cola acquired Corporación Inca Kola del Perú S.A., the Peruvian com ...

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Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola - History, Coca-Cola - Early years, Coca-Cola - World War II, Coca-Cola - New Coke to the present, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola formula, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola design, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola's advertising, Coca-Cola - Recent History, Coca-Cola - Sport event sponsorships, Coca-Cola - Criticisms, Coca-Cola - Business practices, Coca-Cola - International appeal, Coca-Cola - Notes, Coca-Cola - Types of Coke, Coca-Cola - Brands owned by Coca-Cola

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The famous Coca-Cola logotype is said to have largely been created by John Pemberton's business partner, Frank Mason Robinson, in 1885. It was Robsinson who came up with the name, and he also chose the logo’s distinctive cursive script. The typeface used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid 19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period. The equally famous Coca-Cola bottle, called the "Contour bottle" within the company, was created in 1915 by a Swedish former gl ...

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Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola - History, Coca-Cola - Early years, Coca-Cola - World War II, Coca-Cola - New Coke to the present, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola formula, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola design, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola's advertising, Coca-Cola - Recent History, Coca-Cola - Sport event sponsorships, Coca-Cola - Criticisms, Coca-Cola - Business practices, Coca-Cola - International appeal, Coca-Cola - Notes, Coca-Cola - Types of Coke, Coca-Cola - Brands owned by Coca-Cola

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Symptoms of a peptic ulcer can be: Abdominal pain; Hematemesis (vomiting blood); Melena (tarry feces due to oxidised iron from hemoglobin); Weight loss; Rarely, an ulcer can lead to a gastric or duodenal perforation. This is extremely painful and requires immediate surgery. A history of heartburn, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and use of certain forms of medication can raise the suspicion for peptic ulcer. Medicines associated with peptic ulcer are NSAID (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs) that inhibit cyclooxygenas ...

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Peptic ulcer, Peptic ulcer - Signs and symptoms, Peptic ulcer - Diagnosis, Peptic ulcer - Pathophysiology, Peptic ulcer - Epidemiology, Peptic ulcer - Treatment

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Hydrochloric acid - Direct synthesis. The large scale production of hydrochloric acid is almost always integrated with other industrial scale chemical production. In the chlor-alkali industry, salt solution is electrolyzed producing chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen. The pure chlorine gas can be re-combined with the hydrogen gas, forming chemically pure HCl gas. As the reaction is exothermic, the installation is called a HCl oven. Cl2 + H2 → 2HCl The resulting pure hydrogen chloride gas is absorbed in demineralized water, ...

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Hydrochloric acid, Hydrochloric acid - History, Hydrochloric acid - Chemistry, Hydrochloric acid - Physical properties, Hydrochloric acid - Production, Hydrochloric acid - Direct synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Organic synthesis, Hydrochloric acid - Industrial market, Hydrochloric acid - Applications, Hydrochloric acid - Regeneration of ion exchangers, Hydrochloric acid - pH control and neutralization, Hydrochloric acid - Pickling of steel, Hydrochloric acid - Production of inorganic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Production of organic compounds, Hydrochloric acid - Other applications, Hydrochloric acid - Hydrochloric acid and living organisms, Hydrochloric acid - Physiology, Hydrochloric acid - Pathophysiology and pathology, Hydrochloric acid - Chemical weapons, Hydrochloric acid - Safety, Hydrochloric acid - Related chemical substances, Hydrochloric acid - Related topics

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Younger patients with ulcer-like symptoms are often treated with antacids or H2 antagonists before EGD is undertaken. Bismuth compounds may actually reduce or even clear organisms. When H. pylori infection is present, the most effective treatments are combinations of 2 antibiotics (e.g. Erythromycin, Ampicillin, Amoxicillin, Tetracycline, Metronidazole) and 1 proton pump inhibitor (PPI). An effective combination would be Amoxicillin + Metronidazole + Pantoprazole (a PPI). In the absence of H. pylori, ...

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Peptic ulcer, Peptic ulcer - Signs and symptoms, Peptic ulcer - Diagnosis, Peptic ulcer - Pathophysiology, Peptic ulcer - Epidemiology, Peptic ulcer - Treatment

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In Western countries the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infections roughly matches age (i.e., 20% at age 20, 30% at age 30, 80% at age 80 etc). Prevalence is higher in third world countries. Transmission is by food and human contact, sharing food utensils etc. A minority of cases of Helicobacter infection will eventually lead to an ulcer and a larger proportion of people will get non-spec ...

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Peptic ulcer, Peptic ulcer - Signs and symptoms, Peptic ulcer - Diagnosis, Peptic ulcer - Pathophysiology, Peptic ulcer - Epidemiology, Peptic ulcer - Treatment

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With iron oxides and with elementary iron, lead tetroxide forms insoluble iron(II) and iron(III) plumbates, which is the basis of the anti-corrosive properties of lead-based paints applied to iron objects. When heated to 500 °C, it decomposes to lead(II) oxide and oxygen. At 580 °C, the reaction is complete. 2 Pb3O4 → 6 PbO + O2 Nitric acid dissolves the lead(II) oxide component, leaving behind the insoluble lead(IV) oxide: Pb3O4 + 4 HNO3 → PbO2 + 2 Pb(NOSee also:

Red lead, Red lead - Preparation, Red lead - Chemical properties, Red lead - Use, Red lead - Physiological effects, Red lead - Ecological issues, Red lead - Historic note

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In patients in whom peptic ulcer is suspected, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD, a form of endoscopy) is indicated. By direct visual identification, the location and severity of an ulcer can be described. Moreover, if no ulcer is present, EGD can often provide an alternative diagnosis. The diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori can be by: Biopsy during EGD; Breath testing (does not require EGD); Direct culture from an EGD biopsy specimen; Direct detection of urease activity in a biopsy sp ...

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Peptic ulcer, Peptic ulcer - Signs and symptoms, Peptic ulcer - Diagnosis, Peptic ulcer - Pathophysiology, Peptic ulcer - Epidemiology, Peptic ulcer - Treatment

Read more here: » Peptic ulcer: Encyclopedia II - Peptic ulcer - Diagnosis

Caffeine is a plant alkaloid, found in numerous plant varieties. The most commonly used of which are coffee, tea, and to some extent cocoa. Other, less commonly used, sources of caffeine include the plants yerba maté and guarana, which are sometimes used in the preparation of teas and, more recently, energy drinks. Two of caffeine's alternative names, mateine and guaranine, are derived from the names of these plants. The world's primary source of caffeine is the bean of the coffee plant, from which coffee is brewed. Caf ...

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Caffeine, Caffeine - Sources of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine equivalents, Caffeine - History of caffeine use, Caffeine - Effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine metabolism, Caffeine - Mechanism of Action, Caffeine - Side effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Withdrawal, Caffeine - Effects on fetuses and newborn children, Caffeine - The dangers of caffeine pills, Caffeine - Extraction of pure caffeine

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Coca-Cola's advertising has had a significant impact on American culture, and is frequently credited with the "invention" of the modern image of Santa Claus as an old man in red-and-white garments; however, while the company did in fact start promoting this image in the 1930s in its winter advertising campaigns, it was already common before that.[4] In the 1970s, a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", produced by Billy Davis, became a popular hit single, but there is no evidence that ...

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Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola - History, Coca-Cola - Early years, Coca-Cola - World War II, Coca-Cola - New Coke to the present, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola formula, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola design, Coca-Cola - Coca-Cola's advertising, Coca-Cola - Recent History, Coca-Cola - Sport event sponsorships, Coca-Cola - Criticisms, Coca-Cola - Business practices, Coca-Cola - International appeal, Coca-Cola - Notes, Coca-Cola - Types of Coke, Coca-Cola - Brands owned by Coca-Cola

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These are the active enantiomer (levocetirizine, desloratadine) or metabolite (fexofenadine) derivatives of second-generation drugs intended to have increased efficacy with fewer adverse drug reactions. Indeed, fexofenadine is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac arrhythmia compared to terfenadine. However, there is little evidence for any advantage of levocetirizine or desloratadine, compared to cetirizine or loratadine respectively. Antihistamine - SystemicSee also:

Antihistamine, Antihistamine - Pharmacology, Antihistamine - Clinical use of antihistamines, Antihistamine - Indications, Antihistamine - Adverse drug reactions, Antihistamine - First-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Ethylenediamines, Antihistamine - Ethanolamines, Antihistamine - Alkylamines, Antihistamine - Piperazines, Antihistamine - Tricyclics, Antihistamine - Common structural features of classical antihistamine, Antihistamine - Second-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Topical, Antihistamine - Common structural features of non-sedating antihistamines, Antihistamine - Third-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Other agents, Antihistamine - Inhibitors of histamine release, Antihistamine - H2-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - H3- and H4-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Other agents with antihistaminergic activity

Read more here: » Antihistamine: Encyclopedia II - Antihistamine - Third-generation H₁-receptor antagonists

Caffeine is a plant alkaloid, found in numerous plant varieties. The most commonly used of which are coffee, tea, and to some extent cocoa. Other, less commonly used, sources of caffeine include the plants yerba maté and guarana, which are sometimes used in the preparation of teas and, more recently, energy drinks. Two of caffeine's alternative names, mateine and guaranine, are derived from the names of these plants. The world's primary source of caffeine is the bean of the coffee plant, from which coffee is brewed. Caf ...

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Caffeine, Caffeine - Sources of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine equivalents, Caffeine - History of caffeine use, Caffeine - Effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine metabolism, Caffeine - Mechanism of Action, Caffeine - Side effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Withdrawal, Caffeine - The dangers of caffeine pills, Caffeine - Extraction of pure caffeine

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Although tea has been consumed in China for thousands of years, the first documented use of caffeine in a beverage for its pharmacological effect was in the 15th Century by the Sufis of Yemen, who used coffee to stay awake during prayers. In the 16th Century there were coffee houses in Cairo and Mecca, and in the 17th Century coffee houses opened for the first time in Europe. In 1819, relatively pure caffeine was isolated for the first time by the German chemist Friedrich Ferdinand Runge. According to the legend, he did this at the instigation of Joha ...

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Caffeine, Caffeine - Sources of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine equivalents, Caffeine - History of caffeine use, Caffeine - Effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine metabolism, Caffeine - Mechanism of Action, Caffeine - Side effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Withdrawal, Caffeine - The dangers of caffeine pills, Caffeine - Extraction of pure caffeine

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Caffeine pills are often used by college students and shift workers as a convenient way to fight sleep, and are often considered harmless. However, like any medication, caffeine can be harmful or deadly in sufficient quantities. Periodically, caffeine pills come under media fire in connection with the death of a college student due to a large overdose of caffeine. One example is the death of a North Carolina student, Jason Allen, who swallowed most of a bottle of 90 such pills [5], equivalent of about 250 cups of coffee. A few other deaths by caffeine overdose have been kno ...

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Caffeine, Caffeine - Sources of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine equivalents, Caffeine - History of caffeine use, Caffeine - Effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Caffeine metabolism, Caffeine - Mechanism of Action, Caffeine - Side effects of caffeine, Caffeine - Withdrawal, Caffeine - The dangers of caffeine pills, Caffeine - Extraction of pure caffeine

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With the introduction of broad-spectrum antibiotics in the latter half of the twentieth century, antibiotic-associated diarrhea became more common. Pseudomembranous colitis was first described as a complication of C. difficile infection in 1978 (Larson et al), when a toxin was isolated from patients suffering from pseudomembranous colitis and Koch's postulates were met. Infection can range in severity from asymptomatic to severe and life threatening, and deaths have been reported. People are most often infected in hospit ...

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Clostridium difficile, Clostridium difficile - Bacteriology, Clostridium difficile - Characteristics, Clostridium difficile - Toxins, Clostridium difficile - Role in disease, Clostridium difficile - Diagnosis and treatment, Clostridium difficile - Pharmacotherapy, Clostridium difficile - Recurrence, Clostridium difficile - Notable outbreaks, Clostridium difficile - Cracking of the genetic code of the Quebec strain, Clostridium difficile - External link

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Antihistamine - Inhibitors of histamine release. These agents appear to stabilise the mast cells to prevent degranulation and mediator release. cromoglicate (cromolyn) nedocromil Antihistamine - H2-receptor antagonists. Main article: H2-receptor antagonist Clinically-relevant histamine H2-receptors are found principally in the parietal cells of the gastric mucosa. H2-receptor "antagonists" are also inve ...

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Antihistamine, Antihistamine - Pharmacology, Antihistamine - Clinical use of antihistamines, Antihistamine - Indications, Antihistamine - Adverse drug reactions, Antihistamine - First-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Ethylenediamines, Antihistamine - Ethanolamines, Antihistamine - Alkylamines, Antihistamine - Piperazines, Antihistamine - Tricyclics, Antihistamine - Common structural features of classical antihistamine, Antihistamine - Second-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Topical, Antihistamine - Common structural features of non-sedating antihistamines, Antihistamine - Third-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Other agents, Antihistamine - Inhibitors of histamine release, Antihistamine - H2-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - H3- and H4-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Other agents with antihistaminergic activity

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These are newer drugs that are much more selective for peripheral H1 receptors in preference to the central nervous system histaminergic and cholinergic receptors. This selectivity significantly reduces the occurrence of adverse drug reactions compared with first-generation agents, while still providing effective relief of allergic conditions. Antihistamine - Systemic. acrivastine astemizole cetirizine loratadine mizolastine terfenadine (withdrawn from ...

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Antihistamine, Antihistamine - Pharmacology, Antihistamine - Clinical use of antihistamines, Antihistamine - Indications, Antihistamine - Adverse drug reactions, Antihistamine - First-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Ethylenediamines, Antihistamine - Ethanolamines, Antihistamine - Alkylamines, Antihistamine - Piperazines, Antihistamine - Tricyclics, Antihistamine - Common structural features of classical antihistamine, Antihistamine - Second-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Topical, Antihistamine - Common structural features of non-sedating antihistamines, Antihistamine - Third-generation H1-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Other agents, Antihistamine - Inhibitors of histamine release, Antihistamine - H2-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - H3- and H4-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Other agents with antihistaminergic activity

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The most important function of the human immune system occurs at the cellular level of the blood and tissues. The lymphatic and blood circulation systems are highways for specialized white blood cells to travel around the body. White blood cells include B cells, T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages. Each has a different responsibility, but all function together with the primary objective of recognizing, attacking and destroying bacteria, viruses, cancer cells, and all substances seen as foreign. Without this coordinated effort, a person would not be able to surv ...

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Immune system, Immune system - Structure, Immune system - Innate immune system, Immune system - Adaptive immune system, Immune system - Intersections between systems, Immune system - Disorders of the human immune system, Immune system - Other factors that affect immune response, Immune system - Pharmacology

Read more here: » Immune system: Encyclopedia II - Immune system - Disorders of the human immune system

Despite high hopes, there are no medications that directly increase the activity of the immune system. Various forms of medication that activate the immune system may indeed cause autoimmune disorders. Suppression of the immune system is often used to control autoimmune disorders or inflammation when this causes excessive tissue damage, and to prevent transplant rejection after an organ transplant. Commonly used immunosuppressants include glucocorticoids, azathioprine, methotrexate, ciclosporin, cyclophosphamide and mercaptopurine. In ...

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Immune system, Immune system - Structure, Immune system - Innate immune system, Immune system - Adaptive immune system, Immune system - Intersections between systems, Immune system - Disorders of the human immune system, Immune system - Other factors that affect immune response, Immune system - Pharmacology

Read more here: » Immune system: Encyclopedia II - Immune system - Pharmacology