Actual malice in United States law is a condition required to establish libel against public figures and is defined as "knowledge that the information was false" or that it was published "with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not." This is only the definition in the United States and came from the landmark 1964 lawsuit New York Times Co. v. Sullivan that ruled that public officials needed to prove ...

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See also:

U.S. false claims law, U.S. false claims law - Qui tam's origins, U.S. false claims law - The scope of the False Claims Act, U.S. false claims law - Federal health care enforcement initiatives, U.S. false claims law - Initiating a civil action, U.S. false claims law - Government intervention, U.S. false claims law - Jurisdiction and venue, U.S. false claims law - Statute of limitations, U.S. false claims law - Standing, U.S. false claims law - Relator and subject matter jurisdiction, U.S. false claims law - Scienter, U.S. false claims law - Particularity, U.S. false claims law - Double jeopardy considerations, U.S. false claims law - Settling a qui tam/FCA lawsuit, U.S. false claims law - Preventing FCA lawsuits, U.S. false claims law - The Act's future

Read more here: » U.S. false claims law: Encyclopedia II - U.S. false claims law - Relator and subject matter jurisdiction

mithya-jnana:

mithya-jnana (jnaana). False knowledge.

(See also: mithya-jnana, Hinduism, Hinduism Dictionary, Sanskrit Dictionary, Body Mind and Soul)

Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Dvesha proceeds Karma or action - virtuous or vicious - which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain.

Excerpt from All About Hinduism by Sri Swami Sivananda

Read more here: » Bondage: Vedic Philosophy - The Cause Of Bondage And The Means To Emancipation

The Sixteen Categories: One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen categories are: means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members (Avayava), argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada), wrangling (Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility (Jati), and occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).

Excerpt from All About Hinduism by Sri Swami Sivananda

Read more here: » Sixteen Categories: Vedic Philosophy - The Sixteen Categories

They say that Life is only Existence visible. That birth and death are only constructs in the mind, two points in time, taken to be Reality by one ignorant of the true nature of the Self, the entity which expresses itself as Existence itself, the pure Consciousness.

"There is no such thing as death, it is only the body that dies. Can anyone ever say 'I am dead'? Who knows 'I am'?"

This knowledge-principle is the all-pervasive, it is ever-existent. It is the false identification with the body that is the cause of grief and sorrow.

(See also: Metaphysics, Metaphysical Principles, Definition of Metaphysics, Metaphysical Techniques, Miracles, Creating Miracles Faith and Belief, Spiritual Guidance, Peace of Mind, Life and Beyond, Body Mind and Soul)

The Nyaya or Hindu logic was founded by Gautama Rishi, who is also known by the names Akshapada and Dirghatapas. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The word Nyaya signifies going into a subject, i.e., investigating it analytically. In this sense of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya, synthesis. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya.

Excerpt from All About Hinduism by Sri Swami Sivananda

Read more here: » Nyaya: Hindu Philosophy - The Nyaya

Short definition of God, Soul And Universe according to Vedic Philosophy.

Excerpt from All About Hinduism by Sri Swami Sivananda

Read more here: » God, Soul And Universe: Vedic Philosophy - God, Soul And Universe

Bondage And Release: Pleasure and pain result from the contact of soul, sense, mind and object. From pleasure arises desire. From pleasure derived from the enjoyment of garlands, sandal paste, women and other objects, Raga or desire is produced successively for pleasure of a similar kind or for the means of attaining it. From pain caused by snakes, scorpions, thorns and the like, aversion arises with regard to such pain or with regard to its source.

Excerpt from All About Hinduism by Sri Swami Sivananda

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The closed world assumption is the presumption that what is not currently known to be true is false. The same name also refer to a logical formalization of this assumption by Ray Reiter. The opposite of the closed world assumption is the open world assumption, stating that lack of knowledge does not imply falsity. Negation as failure is related to the closed world assumption, as it amounts to b ...

Including:

• Closed World Assumption - Formalization in logic

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Consensus science is a phrase used to describe a position on an issue that is primarily supported using existing or purported scientific consensus as an appeal to authority or appeal to the majority. It can also refer to a use of scientific consensus in a logical argument as the primary means to demonstrate, establish, or promote a view based on some scientific or statistical data which may or may not be part of some hypothesis or theory. One who perceives a scientific theory to be supported by both scientific consensus and con ...

Including:

• Consensus science - History and Background
• Consensus science - Examples
• Consensus science - Criticisms
• Consensus science - Resistance to Contradiction

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A misconception happens when a person believes in a concept that is objectively false. Due to the subjective nature of being human it can be assumed that everyone has some kind of misconception. This postulates to "No one has perfect knowledge" and "no one has a perfect mental representation of the world." If a concept cannot be proven to be either true or false then it cannot be claimed that disbelievers have a misconception of the concept by believers no matter how much the ...

Including:

• Misconception - Challenging Misconceptions
• Misconception - Politics
• Misconception - List of Misconceptions
• Misconception - Political
• Misconception - Scientific
• Misconception - Past Scientific Misconceptions
• Misconception - Mental Illness

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Heretic, meaning literally a person guilty or accused of heresy, is also often used as a title. It is a name attributed to those who present ideas which are contrary to popular opinion, belief, and/or the status quo of any practice or branch of knowledge. In its classic meaning, heretic is a person that teaches a false religious doctrine. It has been used to also include anyone that presents ideas contrary to popular opinion. Heretic (video game) is the title of a video game released in 1994 an ...

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When someone sincerely agrees with an assertion, they are claiming that it is the truth. Epistemology, the study of knowledge, seeks solutions for the many philosophical problems associated with truth. The first problem for philosophers is deciding what sorts of things are true or false, the so-called truth-bearers. At stake is the terminology we use to discuss truth. Then there are a range of theories about what makes these truth-bearers true. Some, the robust theories, treat truth as a property; others, the d ...

Including:

• Truth - Bearers of truth
• Truth - Theories about truth
• Truth - Robust theories
• Truth - Deflationary theories
• Truth - Formal definitions
• Truth - Types of truth
• Truth - Subjective versus objective
• Truth - Relative versus absolute
• Truth - Other uses of Truth
• Truth - Double truth
• Truth - True testimony
• Truth - Truth in logic
• Truth - Major philosophers who have proposed theories of truth

Read more here: » Truth: Encyclopedia - Truth

Pseudoscience is any body of knowledge, methodology, or practice that is erroneously regarded as scientific [1]. Pseudoscience - Introduction. The standards for determining of any body of knowledge, methodology, or practice as nonscience vary, but often include lack of empirical evidence, unfalsifiability, or failure to comply with scientific method or apply a heuristic such as Occam's Razor. A n ...

Including:

• Pseudoscience - Introduction
• Pseudoscience - Classifying pseudoscience
• Pseudoscience - Pseudoscience contrasted with protoscience
• Pseudoscience - The problem of demarcation
• Pseudoscience - Fields often associated with pseudoscience
• Pseudoscience - Pseudomathematics
• Pseudoscience - Criticisms of the concept of pseudoscience
• Pseudoscience - People
• Pseudoscience - Lists

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Empirical or a posteriori knowledge is propositional knowledge obtained by experience or sensorial information. It is contrasted with a priori knowledge, or knowledge that is gained through the apprehension of innate ideas, "intuition," "pure reason," or other non-experiential sources. The natural and social sciences are usually considered a posteriori, literally "after the fact," disciplines. Mathematics and logic are usually considered a priori, "before the fact," disciplines. For exa ...

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In philosophy, contextualism describes a collection of views which emphasize the context in which an action, utterance or expression occurs, and argues that, in some important respect, the action, utterance or expression can only be understood within that context. Contextualist views hold that philosophically controversial concepts, such as "meaning P," "knowing that P," "having a reason to A," and possibly even "being true" or "being right" only have meaning relative to a specified context. Som ...

Including:

• Contextualism - Epistemology
• Contextualism - Philosophy of language
• Contextualism - Ethics
• Contextualism - Crimonology
• Contextualism - External link

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A counterfactual conditional, or subjunctive conditional, is a conditional statement aimed at capturing the meaning of if-then statements in natural languages. Differently from material conditional statements, a counterfactual conditional may be false even if its antecedent is false. The meaning of if-then statements in a natural language is not always correctly formalized by material conditionals. In particular, material conditionals are always true whenever their antecedent is false, while an if-then statement in a natural la ...

Including:

• Counterfactual conditional - Note

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A priori is a Latin phrase meaning "from the former" or less literally "before experience". In much of the modern Western tradition, the term a priori is considered to mean propositional knowledge that can be had without, or "prior to", experience. It is usually contrasted with a posteriori knowledge meaning "after experience", which requires experience. For those within the mainstream of the tradition, mathematics ...

Including:

• A priori - Philosophical thought

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In ethics, cognitivism is the view that ethical sentences express propositions and can therefore be true or false (they are truth-apt). See also non-cognitivism. Cognitivism ethics - General idea. Propositions are, roughly, what meaningful declarative sentences are supposed to express (but not interrogative or imperative sentences). Different sentences, in different languages, can (it is often thought) express the same proposition: "snow is white" and "Schnee ist weiss" (in German) both express the p ...

Including:

• Cognitivism ethics - General idea
• Cognitivism ethics - Refinement and arguments

Read more here: » Cognitivism ethics: Encyclopedia - Cognitivism ethics