The distinction between continental and analytic philosophy is relatively recent, probably dating from the early twentieth century. The break in the philosophical tradition which it claims to recognize, however, dates back a century earlier to Immanuel Kant, the last major philosopher to be indisputably significant to both traditions. Analytic philosophy has traditionally been less interested in the German philosophers of the nineteenth century who followed Kant. These included foremost the German Idealists, such as Schelling and Hegel, and ...

See also:

Continental philosophy, Continental philosophy - History, Continental philosophy - Continental philosophy in English-speaking countries, Continental philosophy - Differences from analytic philosophy, Continental philosophy - References and further reading

Read more here: » Continental philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Continental philosophy - History

Frege is widely regarded as a very great logician, on par with Aristotle, Kurt Gödel, and Alfred Tarski. His revolutionary Begriffsschrift, or Concept Script (1879) marked the beginning of a new epoch in the history of logic by displacing the Term Logic that had held sway virtually unchanged since Aristotle. The Begriffsschrift broke much new ground, including a clean treatment of functions and variables. He invented and axiomatized predicate logic, thanks to his discovery of quantified variables, which subsequently bec ...

See also:

Gottlob Frege, Gottlob Frege - Life, Gottlob Frege - Logician, Gottlob Frege - Philosopher

Read more here: » Gottlob Frege: Encyclopedia II - Gottlob Frege - Logician

Freiburg was founded in the 12th century by Duke Konrad of Zahringen as a free market town, hence its name. It was strategically located on a junction of trade routes between the Mediterranean and the North Sea, and the Rhine and the Danube rivers. In the year 1368 Freiburg bought its liberty from a local count, and turned itself over to the protection of the Habsburgs, who allowed it to retain a large amount of freedom. Around 1200 the city began construction of its Minster (Münster or Muenster in German) on the site of an older parish church. The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance was a time of bot ...

See also:

Freiburg, Freiburg - History, Freiburg - Culture, Freiburg - Politics, Freiburg - Sister cities, Freiburg - Transportation, Freiburg - Famous Freiburgers, Freiburg - Sports, Freiburg - Gallery

Read more here: » Freiburg: Encyclopedia II - Freiburg - History

1938 - January-March. January 3 - The March of Dimes is established by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. January 5 - H.R.H. Prince Juan Carlos of Spain is born. January 11 - Frances Moulton is the first woman to become president of a US national bank. January 20 - Wedding of King Farouk I of Egypt and Queen Farida Zulficar in Cairo January 28 - The first ski tow in America begins operation in Vermont. January 31 - Crown princess Beatrix is born in Netherlands F ...

See also:

1938, 1938 - Events, 1938 - January-March, 1938 - April-June, 1938 - July-September, 1938 - October-December, 1938 - Unknown dates, 1938 - Ongoing events, 1938 - Births, 1938 - January-February, 1938 - March-April, 1938 - May-July, 1938 - August-October, 1938 - November-December, 1938 - Fictional, 1938 - Deaths, 1938 - Nobel Prizes

Read more here: » 1938: Encyclopedia II - 1938 - Events

Over time, several schools of thought have developed, including: Classical school Positivist school Chicago school Strain Theory British and American Sub-Cultural Theories Conflict theory and Marxism Frankfurt School Symbolic Interactionism Statistical school Environmental criminology Right Realism or Neo-Classicism Left Realism Feminism Postmodernism

Criminology, Criminology - Schools of thought, Criminology - Classical school, Criminology - Positivist school, Criminology - Strain Theory, Criminology - British and American Sub-Cultural Theories, Criminology - Symbolic Interactionism, Criminology - Types and definitions of crime, Criminology - Educational programs

Read more here: » Criminology: Encyclopedia II - Criminology - Schools of thought

Martin Heidegger - Being and Time. Heidegger's most important work is the dense and challenging Being and Time (German Sein und Zeit, 1927). Although the book as published represents only a third of the total project outlined in its introduction, it marked a turning point in continental philosophy. It has been massively influential and remains one of the most discussed works of 20th century philosophy; many subsequent philosophical views and approaches, such as existentialism and deconstruction, have bee ...

See also:

Martin Heidegger, Martin Heidegger - Early life and education, Martin Heidegger - Philosophy, Martin Heidegger - Being and Time, Martin Heidegger - Later works, Martin Heidegger - Influences and difficulties of French reception, Martin Heidegger - Criticism, Martin Heidegger - Heidegger and Nazi Germany, Martin Heidegger - Der Spiegel interview, Martin Heidegger - Obligations and unsplendid silence: Celan at Todtnauberg, Martin Heidegger - Conclusion, Martin Heidegger - Selected Bibliography, Martin Heidegger - Cinema, Martin Heidegger - Quotes

Read more here: » Martin Heidegger: Encyclopedia II - Martin Heidegger - Philosophy

Many people have disagreed on how best to characterize atheism, and much of the literature on the subject is erroneous or confusing. There are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism, and even divergent definitions among those who share near-identical beliefs. Opponents of atheism have frequently associated atheism with immorality and evil, often characterizing it as a willful and malicious rejection of gods. This, in fact, is the original definition and sense of the word, but changing sensibilities and the normalization of nonreligious viewpoints have caused the ...

See also:

Atheism, Atheism - Etymology, Atheism - Types and typologies of atheism, Atheism - Atheism as lack of theism, Atheism - Atheism as immorality, Atheism - Weak and strong atheism, Atheism - Ignosticism, Atheism - Gnostic and agnostic atheism, Atheism - Atheism in philosophical naturalism, Atheism - Antitheism, Atheism - History, Atheism - Distribution of atheists, Atheism - Atheism in the United Kingdom, Atheism - Atheism in the United States, Atheism - Atheism studies and statistics, Atheism - Statistical problems, Atheism - Religion and atheism, Atheism - Spiritual and religious atheism, Atheism - Judaism, Atheism - Christianity, Atheism - Islam, Atheism - Asian spirituality, Atheism - Reasons for atheism, Atheism - Philosophical reasons, Atheism - Personal and social reasons, Atheism - Three famous atheists: Freud Marx and Nietzsche, Atheism - Criticisms of atheism, Atheism - Atheism is incoherent, Atheism - Atheism doesn't exist, Atheism - Atheism leads to poor morals and ethics, Atheism - Atheism is a belief as much as theism is, Atheism - Related concepts, Atheism - Organizations, Atheism - Satire

Read more here: » Atheism: Encyclopedia II - Atheism - Types and typologies of atheism

Franz Brentano - Intentionality. Brentano is best known for his reintroduction of the concept of intentionality—a concept derived from Scholastic philosophy—to contemporary philosophy in his lectures and in his work Psychologie vom Empirischen Standpunkte (Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint). While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of psychical phenomena, by which they ...

See also:

Franz Brentano, Franz Brentano - Life, Franz Brentano - Work and thought, Franz Brentano - Intentionality, Franz Brentano - Theory of perception, Franz Brentano - Bibliography, Franz Brentano - Major Works by Brentano

Read more here: » Franz Brentano: Encyclopedia II - Franz Brentano - Work and thought

Main Article: list of Austrian scientists List of Austrians - Economists. Carl Menger, founder of the Austrian School of economics Friedrich von Wieser, economist of the Austrian School Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk economist and early member of the Austrian School of Economics Ludwig von Mises, free-market economist Friedrich Hayek, economist and social scientist, Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1974 Oskar Morgenstern, ...

See also:

List of Austrians, List of Austrians - Actors/Actresses, List of Austrians - Artists/Architects, List of Austrians - Composers/Musicians, List of Austrians - Entrepreneurs, List of Austrians - Filmmakers, List of Austrians - Mountaineers, List of Austrians - Nobility, List of Austrians - Politicians, List of Austrians - Royalty, List of Austrians - Science, List of Austrians - Economists, List of Austrians - Engineers/Inventors, List of Austrians - Philosophers, List of Austrians - Physicists mathematicians and chemists, List of Austrians - Physicians, List of Austrians - Psychologists, List of Austrians - Other scientists, List of Austrians - Sports, List of Austrians - Writers, List of Austrians - Other notables

Read more here: » List of Austrians: Encyclopedia II - List of Austrians - Science

D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - The Netherlands. Vollenhoven's successor as historian of philosophy at the VU was Jacob Klapwijk. Dr. Klapwijk picked up many of the loose ends in Vollenhoven's prodigious work, especially those around a central distinction within the new philosophy - namely, the problem that can be approached in terms of an antithesis/common-grace distinction with its theological overcast, and the problem of radicality/normalcy within the history of Western philosophy, which leads to an inquiry regarding ...

See also:

D. H. Th. Vollenhoven, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Pastor, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Doctorate and the Free University, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Christian philosophy, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Vollenhoven and Dooyeweerd, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Problem-Historical Method, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Critical Problem-Historical Method, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Vollenhoven's successor and students, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - The Netherlands, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - South Africa, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - North America, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Footnotes

Read more here: » D. H. Th. Vollenhoven: Encyclopedia II - D. H. Th. Vollenhoven - Vollenhoven's successor and students

Existentialism - Film directors. Ingmar Bergman Eric Rohmer Alain Robbe-Grillet Richard Linklater David O. Russell Michelangelo Antonioni Jean-Luc Godard François Truffaut Mamoru Oshii Existentialism - Novelists and playwrights. Existentialist novelists were generally seen as a mid-1950s phenomenon that continued until the mid- to late 1970s. Most of the major writers were either French or fro ...

See also:

Existentialism, Existentialism - Overview, Existentialism - Major concepts in existentialism, Existentialism - Existentialism before 1970, Existentialism - Existentialism since 1970, Existentialism - Criticisms of existentialism, Existentialism - Existentialism in psychotherapy, Existentialism - Major thinkers and authors associated with the movement, Existentialism - Film directors, Existentialism - Novelists and playwrights, Existentialism - Philosophers, Existentialism - Psychologists, Existentialism - Theologians, Existentialism - Existentialism in popular culture, Existentialism - Film, Existentialism - Humour

Read more here: » Existentialism: Encyclopedia II - Existentialism - Major thinkers and authors associated with the movement

Deconstruction is the subject of at least three main types of criticism. Critics take issue with what they believe is a lack of seriousness and transparency in deconstructive writings, and with what they interpret as a political stance against traditional modernism. In addition, critics often equate deconstruction with nihilism or relativism and criticize deconstruction accordingly. Deconstruction - Lack of usefulness. Many critics wonder what is the usefulness of deconstruction. They see it as little more ...

See also:

Deconstruction, Deconstruction - The difficulty in defining deconstruction, Deconstruction - What deconstruction is not, Deconstruction - Approaching a definition of deconstruction, Deconstruction - Logocentrism and the critique of binary oppositions, Deconstruction - Text and deconstruction, Deconstruction - The terminology of deconstruction, Deconstruction - Différance, Deconstruction - Trace, Deconstruction - Écriture, Deconstruction - Supplement originary lack and invagination, Deconstruction - Hymen, Deconstruction - Pharmakon, Deconstruction - An illustration: Derrida's reading of Lévi-Strauss, Deconstruction - Criticisms of deconstruction, Deconstruction - Lack of usefulness, Deconstruction - Unintelligibility, Deconstruction - Lack of seriousness and transparency, Deconstruction - Anti-essentialist criticism, Deconstruction - Political criticisms, Deconstruction - Criticisms classifying deconstruction as nihilism or relativism, Deconstruction - History of deconstruction, Deconstruction - Precursors, Deconstruction - Deconstruction in popular media

Read more here: » Deconstruction: Encyclopedia II - Deconstruction - Criticisms of deconstruction

After the war, Levinas became a leading thinker in France, emerging from the circle of intellectuals surrounding Jean Wahl. His work is based on the ethics of the Other or, in Levinas' terms, he argues "ethics as first philosophy." For Levinas, the Other is not knowable and cannot be made into an object of the self, as is done by traditional metaphysics (called ontology by Levinas). Levinas prefers to think of philosophy as the 'knowledge of love' rather than the love of knowledge. In his arrangement, ethics become an entity independent of s ...

See also:

Emmanuel Lévinas, Emmanuel Lévinas - War experiences, Emmanuel Lévinas - Philosophy

Read more here: » Emmanuel Lévinas: Encyclopedia II - Emmanuel Lévinas - Philosophy

The first comprehensive treatment of the subject was by Aristotle in the Metaphysics. He developed a complicated theory of being, according to which only individual things, called substances fully have being, but other things such as relations, quantity, time and place (called the Categories) have a derivative kind of being, dependent on individual things (See the article on Ontology for a detailed discussion). The medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas, perhaps following the Persion philosopher Avicenna, argued that God is pure being, and that ...

See also:

Existence, Existence - The problems of existence, Existence - Modern approaches to the problem, Existence - Earlier views, Existence - European views, Existence - Quotations

Read more here: » Existence: Encyclopedia II - Existence - Earlier views

Determinism - Argument from morality. Some critics of determinism argue that if people are assumed incapable of independent choice (free will) there can then be no rational basis for morality, and therefore some aspects of criminal and civil jurisprudence and legislation appear irrational and unjust. How, they ask, can one be punished for an involuntary action? In order to maintain the integrity of social institutions that rely in part upon holding people responsible for their actions, it becomes necessary in their eyes to deny determinism, at least as fa ...

See also:

Determinism, Determinism - Philosophy of determinism, Determinism - The nature of determinism, Determinism - Determinism in Western tradition, Determinism - Determinism in Eastern tradition, Determinism - Arguments against determinism, Determinism - Argument from morality, Determinism - Determinism quantum mechanics and classical physics, Determinism - First cause, Determinism - A multi-deterministic position, Determinism - Modern perspectives on determinism, Determinism - Scientific determinism and first cause, Determinism - Determinism and generative processes

Read more here: » Determinism: Encyclopedia II - Determinism - Arguments against determinism

Weyl was born in Elmshorn (a town near Hamburg), Germany. From 1904 to 1908 he studied in Göttingen and Munich, mainly mathematics and physics. His doctorate was awarded at Göttingen under the direction of Hilbert and Minkowski. In 1910, he obtained a teaching post of private lecturer at Göttingen. He took a professorship at the Technische Hochschule in Zürich, Switzerland in 1913, where he remained until 1949. ...

See also:

Hermann Weyl, Hermann Weyl - Early life and interests, Hermann Weyl - Geometric foundations of manifolds and physics, Hermann Weyl - Foundations of mathematics, Hermann Weyl - Mathematics of relativity, Hermann Weyl - Topological groups Lie groups and representation theory, Hermann Weyl - Harmonic analysis and analytic number theory, Hermann Weyl - Later career, Hermann Weyl - Personality, Hermann Weyl - Quotes

Read more here: » Hermann Weyl: Encyclopedia II - Hermann Weyl - Early life and interests

The social/intellectual context in the writings of western European history includes: The Enlightenment - human rights, new science, democracy (scholarly sources Kant, Dilthey). The Royal Society - a secular creation of an intellectual world led by figures such as Newton, Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren, Joseph Addison, Bishop Sprat. The Encyclopaedists - the creation of central repositories of knowledge available to all outside of academies, including mass market encyclopaedias and dictionaries: Diderot, Samuel Johnson, Voltaire. Romanticism - individual, subjective, imaginative, pe ...

See also:

Intellectual history, Intellectual history - Western intellectual history, Intellectual history - Far eastern intellectual history, Intellectual history - Prominent historians

Read more here: » Intellectual history: Encyclopedia II - Intellectual history - Western intellectual history

Modern investigations into and discoveries about consciousness are based on psychological statistical studies and case studies of consciousness states and the deficits caused by lesions, stroke, injury, or surgery that disrupt the normal functioning of human senses and cognition. These discoveries suggest that the mind is a complex structure derived from various localized functions that are bound together with a unitary awareness. Several studies point to common mechanisms in different clinical conditions that lead to loss of consciou ...

See also:

Consciousness, Consciousness - Etymology, Consciousness - Consciousness and language, Consciousness - Cognitive neuroscience approaches, Consciousness - Philosophical approaches, Consciousness - Phenomenal and access consciousness, Consciousness - The description and location of phenomenal consciousness, Consciousness - Access consciousness, Consciousness - Physical approaches, Consciousness - Spiritual approaches, Consciousness - Functions of consciousness, Consciousness - Tests of consciousness, Consciousness - Turing Test, Consciousness - Mirror test, Consciousness - Cognitive Neuroscience, Consciousness - Philosophy, Consciousness - Physical Theories of Consciousness, Consciousness - People, Consciousness - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Consciousness: Encyclopedia II - Consciousness - Cognitive neuroscience approaches

In his early twenties, Steiner was asked to edit Goethe's scientific writings for a major publication of that writer's complete works. In the course of this work, Steiner began publishing various works that foreshadowed his later ideas, but were still set within the philosophical and scientific framework of his age: chiefly Goethe's Conception of the World and his commentaries on Goethe's scientific essays. His first masterwork, Die Philosophie der Freiheit (translated variously as The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity, < ...

See also:

Anthroposophy, Anthroposophy - History, Anthroposophy - Description, Anthroposophy - Place in Western Philosophy, Anthroposophy - Applications, Anthroposophy - Social Goals of Anthroposophy, Anthroposophy - Steiner's Outlook on Social History, Anthroposophy - Social Threefolding, Anthroposophy - Aspects of Anthroposophic Thinking, Anthroposophy - Successes of Anthroposophy, Anthroposophy - Critiques of Anthroposophy, Anthroposophy - See Also

Read more here: » Anthroposophy: Encyclopedia II - Anthroposophy - History

With the tumultuous years of 1789-1815, European culture was transformed by revolution, war and disruption. By ending many of the social and cultural props of the previous century, the stage was set for dramatic economic and political change. European philosophy participated in, and drove, many of these changes. 19th-century philosophy - Influences from the Late Enlightenment. The last third of the 18th century produced a host of ideas and works which would both systematize previous philosophy, and present ...

See also:

19th-century philosophy, 19th-century philosophy - Brief Historical Outline, 19th-century philosophy - Influences from the Late Enlightenment, 19th-century philosophy - List of Philosophers

Read more here: » 19th-century philosophy: Encyclopedia II - 19th-century philosophy - Brief Historical Outline

1859 - January. January 2 - Erastus Beadle publishes The Dime Book of Practical Etiquette. January 24 - Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexander John Cuza under the name Romania (see December 1, 1918 for the final unification, Transylvania and other regions were still missing at this time). 1859 - February. February 14 - Oregon is admitted as the 33rd U.S. state. February 27 - US congressman Dan Sickles shoots Philip Barton Key for having ...

See also:

1859, 1859 - Events, 1859 - January, 1859 - February, 1859 - March, 1859 - April, 1859 - May, 1859 - June, 1859 - July, 1859 - August, 1859 - September, 1859 - October, 1859 - November, 1859 - December, 1859 - Unknown Dates, 1859 - Births, 1859 - January-June, 1859 - July-December, 1859 - Deaths

Read more here: » 1859: Encyclopedia II - 1859 - Events