precede: To come before in time, importance, influence or rank.

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Vedanta: (Sanskrit) "Ultimate wisdom" or "final

conclusions of the Vedas." Vedanta is the system of

thought embodied in the Upanishads (ca 1500-600 bce),

which give forth the ultimate conclusions of the Vedas.

Through history there developed numerous Vedanta

schools, ranging from pure dualism to absolute monism.

The first and original school is Advaita Ishvaravada,

"monistic theism" or panentheism, exemplified in the

Vedanta-Siddhanta of Rishi Tirumular (ca 250 bce) of the Nandinatha Sampradaya in his Tirumantiram, which is a

perfect summation of both the Vedas and the Agamas.

This is a dipolar reconciliation of monism and dualism

which, as philosopher-statesman Dr. S. Radhakrishnan

(18881975)

declared, best depicts the philosophy of the

Upanishads. After about 700 ce, many other schools

developed, each establishing itself through written

commentaries on the major Upanishads, the Bhagavad

Gita and the Brahma Sutras. The latter text, by

Badarayana (ca 400 bce), is the earliest known

systematization of Vedanta, but its extremely terse

aphorisms are philosophically illusive without

commentary. During the "scholastic era" (7001700),

three main variations of the original Vedanta were

developed: 1) Advaita Vedanta, or pure nondualism,

exemplified by Shankara (788820);

2) Vishishtadvaita

Vedanta, or qualified nondualism, most fully expressed by

Ramanuja (10171137);

and 3) Dvaita Vedanta,

expounded by Madhva (11971278).

Panentheism is embodied in those qualified nondual

Vedanta schools that accept the ultimate identity of

the soul and God. Examples are the Vishishtadvaita

of Bhaskara (ca 950), the Shuddha Advaita, "pure

nondualism," of Vallabha (ca 14751530)

and, to a

lesser degree, the Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja.

In summary: Madhva, the dualist, conceives

Brahman to be the Personal God. In his philosophy,

the universe, souls and God are all separate from one

another and real. Ramanuja, the qualified nondualist,

also conceives Brahman to be the Personal God. In

his philosophy, God must not be considered apart

from the world and souls, for the three together form

a one whole. The world and souls are real as the

body of God, and the individual soul feels himself to

be part of God. Shankara, the strict advaitist,

conceives Brahman to be the Impersonal God, the

Absolute. Shankara does not deny the existence of

the Personal God, known as Ishvara, but declares

Ishvara to be equally as unreal as the universe and

the individuality of the soul. In truth, the only

Reality is the Absolute, and man is that Absolute. To

Rishi Tirumular, the panentheist, there is an eternal

oneness of God and man at the level of their inner Being, but a difference is acknowledged during the

evolution of the soul. Ultimately even this difference

merges in identity. Thus, there is perfectly

beginningless oneness and a temporary difference

which resolves itself in perfect identity.

Vedanta is one of the six classical philosophies (shad

darshanas) along with Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya,

Yoga and Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called Uttara

Mimamsa, "upper or later examination," as

distinguished from Purva Mimamsa, which

concerned itself solely with the earlier portions of the

Veda. Other important schools of Vedanta include

the Dvaitadvaita, "dual-nondualism,"of Nimbarka (ca

1150), and the Achintya Bhedabheda, "unthinkable

difference-nondifference," of Chaitanya (14851534).

See: acosmic pantheism, Advaita Isvaravada,

dvaita-advaita, monistic theism, Madhva,

panentheism, Ramanuja, Tirumantiram, Vallabha.

(See also: Vedanta , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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chakra: (Sanskrit) "Wheel."

Any of the nerve plexes or centers of force and consciousness located within the inner bodies of man. In the physical body there are corresponding nerve plexuses, ganglia and glands.

The seven principal chakras can be seen psychically as colorful, multi-petaled wheels or lotuses. They are situated along the spinal cord from the base to the cranial chamber.

Additionally, seven chakras, barely visible, exist below the spine. They are seats of instinctive consciousness, the origin of jealousy, hatred, envy, guilt, sorrow, etc. They constitute the lower or hellish world, called Naraka or patala. Thus, there are 14 major chakras in all.

The seven upper chakras, from lowest to highest, are:

1)    muladhara chakra (base of spine): memory, time and space;

2)    svadhishthana chakra (below navel): reason;

3)    manipura chakra (solar plexus): willpower;

4)    anahata chakra (heart center): direct cognition;

5)    vishuddha chakra (throat): divine love;

6)    ajna chakra (third eye): divine sight;

7)    sahasrara chakra (crown of head): illumination, Godliness.

The seven lower chakras, from highest to lowest, are

1)    atala chakra (hips): fear and lust;

2)    vitala chakra (thighs): raging anger;

3)    sutala chakra (knees): retaliatory jealousy;

4)    talatala chakra (calves): prolonged mental confusion;

5)    rasatala chakra (ankles): selfishness;

6)    mahatala chakra (feet): absence of conscience;

7)    patala chakra (located in the soles of the feet): murder and malice.

See: pradakshina, Naraka, chakra, chakras

(See also: Chakra , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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death: Death is a rich concept for which there are many words in Sanskrit, such as: mahaprasthana, "great departure;" samadhimarana, dying consciously while in the state of meditation; mahasamadhi, "great merger, or absorption," naming the departure of an enlightened soul.

Hindus know death to be the soul's detaching itself from the physical body and continuing on in the subtle body (sukshma sharira) with the same desires, aspirations and occupations as when it lived in a physical body. Now the person exists in the in-between world, the subtle plane, or Antarloka, with loved ones who have previously died, and is visited by earthly associates during their sleep.

Hindus do not fear death, for they know it to be one of the most glorious and exalted experiences, rich in spiritual potential. Other terms for death include panchatvam (death as dissolution of the five elements), mrityu (natural death), prayopavesha (self-willed death by fasting), marana (unnatural death, e.g., by murder).

See: reincarnation, suicide, videhamukti.

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rudraksha: (Sanskrit) "Eye of Rudra;" or "red-eyed." From rud, "to cry," and aksha, meaning "eye."

Marblesized, multi-faced, reddish-brown seeds from the Eleocarpus ganitrus, or blue marble tree, which are sacred to Siva and a symbol of His compassion for humanity. Garlands, rudraksha mala, of larger seeds are worn around the neck by monks; and nonmonastics, both men and women, often wear a single bead on a cord at the throat. Smaller beads (usually numbering 108) are strung together for japa (recitation). Indian legend records that God shed a tear when looking down upon the sorrowful plight of humanity. That tear fell to Earth and from it grew the first rudraksha tree. Thus its seeds are worn by Hindus as a symbol of Siva's love and compassion.

See: japa, mantra.

(See also: Rudraksha , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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meditation: Dhyana. Sustained concentration.

Meditation describes a quiet, alert, powerfully concentrated state wherein new knowledge and insights are awakened from within as awareness focuses one-pointedly on an object or specific line of thought.

See: internalized worship, raja yoga, Satchidananda, mantra, mantra yoga.

(See also: Meditation , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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tattva: (Sanskrit) "That-ness" or "essential nature." Tattvas are the primary principles, elements, states or categories of existence, the building blocks of the universe. Lord Siva constantly creates, sustains the form of and absorbs back into Himself His creations. Rishis describe this emanational process as the unfoldment of tattvas, stages or evolutes of manifestation, descending from subtle to gross. At mahapralaya, cosmic dissolution, they enfold into their respective sources, with only the first two tattvas surviving the great dissolution.

The first and subtlest form - the pure consciousness and source of all other evolutes of manifestation - is called Siva tattva, or Parashakti-nada. But beyond Siva tattva lies Parasiva - the utterly transcendent, Absolute Reality, called attava. That is Siva's first perfection.

The Sankhya system discusses 25 tattvas. Saivism recognizes these same 25 plus 11 beyond them, making 36 tattvas in all. These are divided into three groups:

1)    First are the five shuddha tattvas (shuddha = pure). These constitute the realm of shuddha maya.

2)    Next are the seven shuddha-ashuddha tattvas(shuddha-ashuddha = pure-impure). These constitute the realm of shuddhashuddha maya.

3)    3The third group comprises the 24 ashuddha tattvas (ashuddha = impure). These constitute the realm of ashuddha maya.

See: atattva, antahkarana, guna, kosha,

(See also: Tattva , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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obstinate (obstinacy): Overly determined to have one's own way. Stubborn.

(See also: Obstinate (obstinacy): , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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ether: Akasha. Space, the most subtle of the five elements.

See: akasha, tattva.

(See also: Ether , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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Gayatri Mantra: (Sanskrit)

1) Famous Vedic mantra used in puja and personal chanting. Om (bhur bhuvah svah) tat savitur varenyam, bhargo devasya dhimahi, dhiyo yo nah prachodayat. "(O Divine Beings of all three worlds,) we meditate upon the glorious splendor of the Vivifier divine. May He illumine our minds." (Rig Veda 3.62.10 VE). This sacred verse is also called the Savitri Mantra, being addressed to Savitri, the Sun as Creator, and is considered a universal mystic formula so significant that it is called Vedamatri, "mother of the Vedas."

2) Any of a class of special tantric mantras called Gayatri. Each addresses a particular Deity. The Siva Gayatri Mantra is: Tryambakam yajamahe sugandhim pushtivardhanam, urvarukamiva bandhanan mrtyormukshiya mamrtat. "We adore the fragrant three-eyed one who promotes prosperity. May we be freed from the bondage of death as a cucumber from its stalk, but not from immortality." This is a famous verse of the Yajur Veda (from Rudranamaka, or Sri Rudram), considered an essential mantra of Siva worship used in all Siva rites.

(See also: Gayatri Mantra , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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samskaras of birth: From the rite of conception to the blessings of the new-born child.

-       garbhadhana: "Wombplacing." Rite of conception, where physical union is consecrated with the intent of bringing into physical birth an advanced soul.

-       punsavana: (Sanskrit) "Male rite; bringing forth a male." A rite performed during the third month of pregnancy consisting of prayers for a son and for the well-being of mother and child. A custom, found in all societies, based on the need for men to defend the country, run the family business and support the parents in old age. The need for male children in such societies is also based on the fact that women outlive men and leave the family to join their husband's family. -

-       simantonnayana: "Hair-parting." A ceremony held between the fourth and seventh months in which the husband combs his wife's hair and expresses his love and support.

-       jatakarma: "Rite of birth." The father welcomes and blesses the new-born child and feeds it a taste of ghee and honey.

See: samskara, samskaras.

(See also: Samskaras of birth , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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Sivalinga: (Sanskrit) "Mark, or sign, of Siva."

The most prevalent icon of Siva, found in virtually all Siva temples. A rounded, elliptical, aniconic image, usually set on a circular base, or pitha.

The Sivalinga is the simplest and most ancient symbol of Siva, especially of Parasiva, God beyond all forms and qualities. The pitha represents Parashakti, the manifesting power of God.

 Lingas are usually of stone (either carved or naturally existing, svayambhu, such as shaped by a swift-flowing river), but may also be of metal, precious gems, crystal, wood, earth or transitory materials such as ice.

According to the Karana Agama (6), a transitory Sivalinga may be made of 12 different materials: sand, rice, cooked food, river clay, cow dung, butter, rudraksha seeds, ashes, sandalwood, dharba grass, a flower garland or molasses.

See: murti, Saivism, svayambhu Linga.

(See also: Sivalinga , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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dosha: (Sanskrit) "Bodily humor; individual constitution."

Three bodily humors, which according to ayurveda regulate the body, govern its proper functioning and determine its unique constitution. These are

• vata, the air humor;
• pitta, the fire humor; and
• kapha, the water humor.

Vata has its seat in the intestinal area, pitta in the stomach, and kapha in the lung area. They govern the creation, preservation and dissolution of bodily tissue. Vata humor is metabolic, nerve energy. Pitta is the catabolic, fire energy. Kapha is the anabolic, nutritive energy.

The three doshas (tridosha) also give rise to the various emotions and correspond to the three gunas, "qualities:" sattva (quiescence- vata), rajas (activity- pitta) and tamas (inertia- kapha).

See: ayurveda, kapha, pitta, vata.

(See also: Dosha , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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epic history: Long narrative poem in a high style about grand exploits of Gods and heroes. The Ramayana and Mahabharata are India's two great epic histories, called Itihasa.

See: Itihasa, Mahabharata, Ramayana.

(See also: Epic history , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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sannyasa diksha: (Sanskrit) "Renunciate initiation."

This diksha is a formal rite, or less often an informal blessing, entering the devotee into renunciate monasticism, binding him for life to certain vows which include chastity, poverty and obedience, and directing him on the path to Self Realization.

Strictest tradition requires that lifetime renunciates be single men and that they enter training in their order before age 25. However, there are certain orders which accept men into sannyasa after age 25, provided they have been in college and not in the world after that time. Others will accept widowers; and a few initiate women. Such rules and qualifications apply primarily to cenobites, that is, to those who will live and serve together in an ashrama or monastery. The rules pertaining to homeless anchorites are, for obvious reasons, more lenient.

See: sannyasa dharma, videhamukti, diksha, deeksha.

(See also: Sannyasa diksha , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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samskara: (Sanskrit) "Impression, activator; sanctification, preparation."

1)    The imprints left on the subconscious mind by experience (from this or previous lives), which then color all of life, one's nature, responses, states of mind, etc.

2)    A sacrament or rite done to mark a significant transition of life.

These make deep and positive impressions on the mind of the recipient, inform the family and community of changes in the lives of its members and secure inner-world blessings. The numerous samskaras are outlined in the Grihya Shastras. Most are accompanied by specific mantras from the Vedas.

-       samskaras of birth

-       samskaras of childhood

-       samskaras of adulthood

-       samskaras of later life

See: mind (five states of mind), sacrament, samskaras.

(See also: Samskara , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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Bhaskara: n (Sanskrit) Philosopher (ca 950). His Bhaskarabhashya, a commentary on the Brahma Sutras, was the first elaborate criticism of Shankara's Advaitic doctrine of avidya-maya. See: Shankara,Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita.

(See also: Bhaskara , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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murti: (Sanskrit) "Form; manifestation, embodiment, personification." An image or icon of God or one of the many Gods used during worship. Murtis range from aniconic (avyakta, "nonmanifest"), such as the Sivalinga, to vyakta "fully manifest," e.g., anthropomorphic images such as Nataraja. In-between is the partially manifest (vyaktavyakta), e.g., the mukha linga, in which the face of Siva appears on the Sivalinga.

Other Deity representations include symbols, e.g., the banyan tree, and geometric designs such as yantras and mandalas. Another important term for the Deity icon or idol is pratima, "reflected image."

See: aniconic, Ishta Devata, teradi.

(See also: Murti , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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Buddhism: The religion based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (ca 624544 bce). He refuted the idea of man's having an immortal soul and did not preach of any Supreme Deity. Instead he taught that man should seek to overcome greed, hatred and delusion and attain enlightenment through realizing the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path.

Prominent among its holy books is the Dhammapada. Buddhism arose out of Hinduism as an inspired reform movement which rejected the caste system and the sanctity of the Vedas. It is thus classed as nastika, "unbeliever," and is not part of Hinduism. Buddhism eventually migrated out of India, the country of its origin, and now enjoys a following of over 350 million, mostly in Asia.

See: Buddha.

(See also: Buddhism , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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joint family: Kutumba or kula.

The Hindu social unit consisting of several generations of kindred living together under the same roof or in a joining compound. Traditionally, joint families live in a large single home, but in modern times accommodations are often in individual, nuclear homes within a shared compound. The joint family includes the father and mother, sons, grandsons and great-grandsons with their spouses, as well as the daughters, granddaughters and great-granddaughters until they are married - thus often comprising several married couples and their children.

The head of the joint family, called kutumba mukhya (also mukhya or kartri), is the father, supported by the mother, and in his absence, the elder son, guided by his mother and supported by his spouse. From an early age, the eldest son is given special training by his father to assume this future responsibility as head of the family. In the event of the father's death, sacred law does allow for the splitting of the family wealth between the sons.

Division of family assets may also be necessary in cases where sons are involved in different professions and live in different towns, when there is an inability for all to get along under one roof, or when the family becomes unmanageably large. The main characteristics of the joint family are that its members 1) share a common residence, 2) partake of food prepared in the same kitchen, 3) hold their property in common and, 4) ideally, profess the same religion, sect and sampradaya. Each individual family of husband, wife and children is under the guidance of the head of the joint family. All work together unselfishly to further the common good. Each joint family extends out from its home to include a second level of connections as an "extended family (brihatkutumba or mahakutumba)."

See: extended family, grihastha dharma.

(See also: Joint family , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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three worlds: The three worlds of existence, triloka, are the primary hierarchical divisions of the cosmos.

-       Bhuloka: "Earth world," the physical plane.

-       Antarloka: "Inner or in-between world," the subtle or astral plane.

-       Sivaloka: "World of Siva," and of the Gods and highly evolved souls; the causal plane, also called Karanaloka.

The three-world cosmology is readily found in Hindu scriptures. In the major Upanishads of the Vedas we find numerous citations, with interesting variations. Verse 1.5.17 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states, "Now, there are, verily, three worlds, the world of men (Manushyaloka), the world of the fathers (Pitriloka) and the world of the Gods (Devaloka)..." Later, verse 6.2.15 refers to the two higher worlds as the Devaloka and the Brahmaloka. The Katha Upanishad, verse 2.3.8, omitting the world of men, lists the Pitriloka, the Gandharvaloka (world of genies or elementals) and the Brahmaloka (world of God). Another perspective of three worlds is offered in the Prashna Upanishad 3.8, which lists the world of good (Punyaloka), the world of evil (Papaloka) and the world of men (Manushyaloka).

Scriptures offer several other cosmological perspectives, most importantly seven upper worlds (sapta urdhvaloka) and seven lower worlds (sapta adholoka), which correspond to the 14 chakras and make up the "world-egg of God," the universe, called Brahmanda. The seven upper worlds are Bhuloka, Bhuvarloka, Svarloka, Maharloka, Janaloka, Tapoloka and Satyaloka. The second, third and fourth comprise the subtle plane. The highest three comprise the causal plane. The seven lower worlds, collectively known as Naraka or Patala, are (from highest to lowest) Put, Avichi, Samhata, Tamisra, Rijisha, Kudmala and Kakola. From the Saiva Agamic perspective of the 36 tattvas, the pure sphere, shuddha maya - the first five tattvas - is subdivided into 33 planes of existence. The "pureimpure" realm, shuddhashuddha maya - the seven tattvas from maya tattva to purusha - contains 27 planes of existence. The ashuddha ("impure") realm - of 24 tattvas - has 56 planes of existence.

See: chakra, loka, Naraka, tattva (also: individual loka entries).

(See also: Three worlds , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

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