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Deduction | A Wisdom Archive on Deduction | | Deduction A selection of articles related to Deduction | |
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deduction, Deduction
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| ARTICLES RELATED TO Deduction | | | |  Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Sherlock Holmes - Holmesian or Sherlockian deduction"From a drop of water"—Holmes wrote in an essay described in A Study in Scarlet—"a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other." Holmes stories often begin with a bravura display of Holmes' talent for "deduction". It is of some interest to logicians and those interested in logic to try to analyse just what Holmes is doing when he performs his deduction. Holmesian (the British adjective; Americans may also say "Sherlockian") deduction appears to consist primarily ...
See also:Sherlock Holmes, Sherlock Holmes - Detective story, Sherlock Holmes - Profile, Sherlock Holmes - His background, Sherlock Holmes - Holmes and Women, Sherlock Holmes - His habits, Sherlock Holmes - Holmesian or Sherlockian deduction, Sherlock Holmes - Man or machine, Sherlock Holmes - Novels, Sherlock Holmes - Short stories, Sherlock Holmes - Lists of favorite stories, Sherlock Holmes - The Hiatus, Sherlock Holmes - Adaptations, Sherlock Holmes - Holmesian speculation, Sherlock Holmes - The Holmes family, Sherlock Holmes - The Sherlock Holmes copyright, Sherlock Holmes - Related and Derivative Works non canonical, Sherlock Holmes - Notes, Sherlock Holmes - Other Pop Culture References Read more here: » Sherlock Holmes: Encyclopedia II - Sherlock Holmes - Holmesian or Sherlockian deduction |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax deductions Only expenses incurred in the course of employment, are not reimbursable by the emplower, and are not of capital in nature may be considered for tax deductions. This may include entertainment expenses, travelling expenses (only for vehicles registered for business services, and not including travel to and from work), and subscriptions paid to professional bodies or societies.
Taxpayers enjoy double tax deductions for personal and company donations, but with specific restrictions. Only donations made to a pre-approved list of charities ...
See also:Individual income tax in Singapore, Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax rates, Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax rates for individual residents, Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax rates for individual non-residents, Individual income tax in Singapore - Taxable income, Individual income tax in Singapore - Employment income, Individual income tax in Singapore - Dividends, Individual income tax in Singapore - Interest, Individual income tax in Singapore - Rental, Individual income tax in Singapore - Others, Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax deductions, Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax rebates Read more here: » Individual income tax in Singapore: Encyclopedia II - Individual income tax in Singapore - Tax deductions |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Calculating RRSP Deduction Limit A deduction limit is generally calculated as 18% of a person's earned income from the previous tax year, minus any "pension adjustment", up to a dollar maximum. This dollar maximum has been rising, for 2004 the maximum is $14,500, for 2005 it is $15,500, and from 2006 on it will be $18,000. After that, it is supposed to be subject to inflation. Any RRSP deductions not taken in a tax year are carried forward indefinitely to future tax years. So, for example, if a person's RRSP deduction limit is $8,000 and he contributes only $3,000, the unused $5,000 deduction is carried forward. Furthe ...
See also:Registered Retirement Savings Plan, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Terminology, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Calculating RRSP Deduction Limit, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Limits on purchase, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Spousal RRSP, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - After Age 69, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Self-Directed RRSP, Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Caution Read more here: » Registered Retirement Savings Plan: Encyclopedia II - Registered Retirement Savings Plan - Calculating RRSP Deduction Limit |
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| | | | | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Inference and uncertainty Traditional logic is only concerned with certainty - one progresses from certain premises to certain conclusions. There are several motivations for extending logic to deal with uncertain propositions and weaker modes of reasoning.
Philosophical motivations
A large part of our everyday reasoning does not follow the strict rules of logic, but is nevertheless effective in many cases
Science itself is not deductive, but largely inductive, and its process cannot be captured by standard logic (see problem of inductio ...
See also:Inference, Inference - The accuracy of inductive and deductive inferences, Inference - Valid inferences, Inference - An example: the classic syllogism, Inference - Automatic logical inference, Inference - An example: inference using Prolog, Inference - Inference and uncertainty, Inference - Common sense and uncertain reasoning, Inference - Bayesian statistics and probability logic, Inference - Frequentist statistical inference, Inference - Fuzzy logic Read more here: » Inference: Encyclopedia II - Inference and uncertainty |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Inference - Inference and uncertainty Traditional logic is only concerned with certainty - one progresses from certain premises to certain conclusions. There are several motivations for extending logic to deal with uncertain propositions and weaker modes of reasoning.
Philosophical motivations
A large part of our everyday reasoning does not follow the strict rules of logic, but is nevertheless effective in many cases
Science itself is not deductive, but largely inductive, and its process cannot be captured by standard logic (see problem of inductio ...
See also:Inference, Inference - The accuracy of inductive and deductive inferences, Inference - Valid inferences, Inference - An example: the classic syllogism, Inference - Automatic logical inference, Inference - An example: inference using Prolog, Inference - Inference and uncertainty, Inference - Common sense and uncertain reasoning, Inference - Bayesian statistics and probability logic, Inference - Frequentist statistical inference, Inference - Fuzzy logic Read more here: » Inference: Encyclopedia II - Inference - Inference and uncertainty |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Nature of logic Because of its fundamental role in philosophy, the nature of logic has been the object of intense disputation; and it is not possible to give a clear delineation of the bounds of logic in terms acceptable to all rival viewpoints. Nonetheless, the study of logic has, despite this controversy, been very coherent and technically grounded. Here we characterise logic, first by introducing the fundamental ideas about form and then by outlining some of the different schools of thought as well as giving a brief overview of its history, an account of its relationship to other sciences, and--finally--an expositi ...
See also:Logic, Logic - Nature of logic, Logic - Informal formal and symbolic logic, Logic - Rival conceptions of logic, Logic - History of logic, Logic - Relation to other sciences, Logic - Deductive and inductive reasoning, Logic - Topics in logic, Logic - Syllogistic logic, Logic - Predicate logic, Logic - Modal logic, Logic - Deduction and reasoning, Logic - Mathematical logic, Logic - Philosophical logic, Logic - Logic and computation, Logic - Controversies in logic, Logic - Bivalence and the law of the excluded middle, Logic - Implication: strict or material?, Logic - Tolerating the impossible, Logic - Is logic empirical? Read more here: » Logic: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Nature of logic |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Topics in logic Throughout history, there has been interest in distinguishing good from bad arguments, and so logic has been studied in some more or less familiar form. Aristotelian logic has principally been concerned with teaching good argument, and is still taught with that end today, while in mathematical logic and analytical philosophy much greater emphasis is placed on logic as an object of study in its own right, and so l ...
See also:Logic, Logic - Nature of logic, Logic - Informal formal and symbolic logic, Logic - Rival conceptions of logic, Logic - History of logic, Logic - Relation to other sciences, Logic - Deductive and inductive reasoning, Logic - Topics in logic, Logic - Syllogistic logic, Logic - Predicate logic, Logic - Modal logic, Logic - Deduction and reasoning, Logic - Mathematical logic, Logic - Philosophical logic, Logic - Logic and computation, Logic - Controversies in logic, Logic - Bivalence and the law of the excluded middle, Logic - Implication: strict or material?, Logic - Tolerating the impossible, Logic - Is logic empirical? Read more here: » Logic: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Topics in logic |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Nature of logic Because of its fundamental role in philosophy, the nature of logic has been the object of intense dispute: it is not possible clearly to delineate the bounds of logic in terms acceptable to all rival viewpoints. Despite that controversy, the study of logic has been very coherent and technically grounded. In this article, we first characterise logic by introducing fundamental ideas about form, then by outlining some schools of thought, as well as by giving a brief overview of logic's history, an account of its relationship to other sciences, and finally, an exposition of some of logic's essential concepts.
Logic - I ...
See also:Logic, Logic - Nature of logic, Logic - Informal formal and symbolic logic, Logic - Rival conceptions of logic, Logic - History of logic, Logic - Relation to other sciences, Logic - Deductive and inductive reasoning, Logic - Topics in logic, Logic - Syllogistic logic, Logic - Predicate logic, Logic - Modal logic, Logic - Deduction and reasoning, Logic - Mathematical logic, Logic - Philosophical logic, Logic - Logic and computation, Logic - Controversies in logic, Logic - Bivalence and the law of the excluded middle, Logic - Implication: strict or material?, Logic - Tolerating the impossible, Logic - Is logic empirical? Read more here: » Logic: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Nature of logic |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Controversies in logic Just as we have seen there is disagreement over what logic is about, so there is disagreement about what logical truths there are.
Logic - Bivalence and the law of the excluded middle.
Main article: classical logic
The logics discussed above are all "bivalent" or "two-valued"; that is, they are most naturally understood as dividing propositions into the true and the false propositions. Systems which rej ...
See also:Logic, Logic - Nature of logic, Logic - Informal formal and symbolic logic, Logic - Rival conceptions of logic, Logic - History of logic, Logic - Relation to other sciences, Logic - Deductive and inductive reasoning, Logic - Topics in logic, Logic - Syllogistic logic, Logic - Predicate logic, Logic - Modal logic, Logic - Deduction and reasoning, Logic - Mathematical logic, Logic - Philosophical logic, Logic - Logic and computation, Logic - Controversies in logic, Logic - Bivalence and the law of the excluded middle, Logic - Implication: strict or material?, Logic - Tolerating the impossible, Logic - Is logic empirical? Read more here: » Logic: Encyclopedia II - Logic - Controversies in logic |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Abductive reasoning - History of the concept The philosopher Charles Peirce introduced abduction into modern logic. In his works before 1900, he mostly uses the term to mean the use of a known rule to explain an observation, e.g., “if it rains the grass is wet” is a known rule used to explain that the grass is wet.
He later used the term to mean creating new rules to explain new observations, emphasising that abduction is the only logical process that actually creates anything new. Namely, he described the process of science as a combination of abduction, deduction and implicati ...
See also:Abductive reasoning, Abductive reasoning - Logic-based Abduction, Abductive reasoning - Set-Cover Abduction, Abductive reasoning - History of the concept, Abductive reasoning - Applications Read more here: » Abductive reasoning: Encyclopedia II - Abductive reasoning - History of the concept |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Flat tax - Possible implementations There are several ways that flat tax implementation has been proposed, and very rarely has the proposition ammounted to a "true" flat tax where everyone pays exactly the same rate across their taxable income.
Flat tax - Flat tax with deductions.
The most common flat tax implementation proposition, and the type that has been proposed in the United States by Steve Forbes in his presidential campaign and by Dick Armey to congress, calls for base deductions for people and dependents. For example, the Armey pro ...
See also:Flat tax, Flat tax - History and current use, Flat tax - Recent and current proposals, Flat tax - Possible implementations, Flat tax - Flat tax with deductions, Flat tax - Negative income tax, Flat tax - True flat tax, Flat tax - Fairness of taxation, Flat tax - Other issues, Flat tax - Arguments in favor, Flat tax - Arguments against Read more here: » Flat tax: Encyclopedia II - Flat tax - Possible implementations |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Valid inferences Inferences are either valid or invalid, but not both. Philosophical logic has attempted to define the rules of proper inference, i.e. the formal rules that, when correctly applied to true premisses, lead to true conclusions. Aristotle has given one of the most famous statements of those rules in his Organon. Modern mathematical logic, beginning in the 19th century, has built numerous formal systems that embody Aristotelian logic (or variants thereof).
Inferen ...
See also:Inference, Inference - The accuracy of inductive and deductive inferences, Inference - Valid inferences, Inference - An example: the classic syllogism, Inference - Automatic logical inference, Inference - An example: inference using Prolog, Inference - Inference and uncertainty, Inference - Common sense and uncertain reasoning, Inference - Bayesian statistics and probability logic, Inference - Frequentist statistical inference, Inference - Fuzzy logic Read more here: » Inference: Encyclopedia II - Valid inferences |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Automatic logical inference Although now somewhat past their heyday, AI systems for automated logical inference once were extremely popular research topics, and have known industrial applications under the form of expert systems.
An inference system's job is to extend a knowledge base automatically. The knowledge base (KB) is a set of propositions that represent what the system knows about the world. Several techniques can be used by that system to extend KB by means of valid inferences. An additional requirement is that the conclusions the system arrives at are relevant to its task.
< ...
See also:Inference, Inference - The accuracy of inductive and deductive inferences, Inference - Valid inferences, Inference - An example: the classic syllogism, Inference - Automatic logical inference, Inference - An example: inference using Prolog, Inference - Inference and uncertainty, Inference - Common sense and uncertain reasoning, Inference - Bayesian statistics and probability logic, Inference - Frequentist statistical inference, Inference - Fuzzy logic Read more here: » Inference: Encyclopedia II - Automatic logical inference |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Inference - Valid inferences Inferences are either valid or invalid, but not both. Philosophical logic has attempted to define the rules of proper inference, i.e. the formal rules that, when correctly applied to true premisses, lead to true conclusions. Aristotle has given one of the most famous statements of those rules in his Organon. Modern mathematical logic, beginning in the 19th century, has built numerous formal systems that embody Aristotelian logic (or variants thereof).
Inferen ...
See also:Inference, Inference - The accuracy of inductive and deductive inferences, Inference - Valid inferences, Inference - An example: the classic syllogism, Inference - Automatic logical inference, Inference - An example: inference using Prolog, Inference - Inference and uncertainty, Inference - Common sense and uncertain reasoning, Inference - Bayesian statistics and probability logic, Inference - Frequentist statistical inference, Inference - Fuzzy logic Read more here: » Inference: Encyclopedia II - Inference - Valid inferences |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Inference - Automatic logical inference Although now somewhat past their heyday, AI systems for automated logical inference once were extremely popular research topics, and have known industrial applications under the form of expert systems.
An inference system's job is to extend a knowledge base automatically. The knowledge base (KB) is a set of propositions that represent what the system knows about the world. Several techniques can be used by that system to extend KB by means of valid inferences. An additional requirement is that the conclusions the system arrives at are relevant to its task.
< ...
See also:Inference, Inference - The accuracy of inductive and deductive inferences, Inference - Valid inferences, Inference - An example: the classic syllogism, Inference - Automatic logical inference, Inference - An example: inference using Prolog, Inference - Inference and uncertainty, Inference - Common sense and uncertain reasoning, Inference - Bayesian statistics and probability logic, Inference - Frequentist statistical inference, Inference - Fuzzy logic Read more here: » Inference: Encyclopedia II - Inference - Automatic logical inference |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Analogy - Models and theories of analogy
Analogy - Identity of relation.
In ancient Greek the word αναλογια (analogia) originally meant proportionality, in the mathematical sense, and it was indeed sometimes translated to Latin as proportio. From there analogy was understood as identity of relation between any two ordered pairs, whether of mathematical nature or not. Kant's Critique of Judgment held to this notion. Kant argued that there can be exactly the same relation between two completely different objects. ...
See also:Analogy, Analogy - Models and theories of analogy, Analogy - Identity of relation, Analogy - Shared abstraction, Analogy - Special case of induction, Analogy - Hidden deduction, Analogy - Shared structure, Analogy - High-level perception, Analogy - Applications and types of analogy, Analogy - Linguistics, Analogy - Mathematics, Analogy - Artificial intelligence, Analogy - Anatomy, Analogy - Law, Analogy - Engineering Read more here: » Analogy: Encyclopedia II - Analogy - Models and theories of analogy |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Bombe - The principle of the bombe In the bombe, a set of rotors with the same internal wiring as the German Enigma rotors was used – but designed to be spun by a motor, stepping through all possible rotor settings. The bombe rotors had a double set of contacts and wiring to emulate the Enigma reflection. A bombe would consist of a number of these sets of rotors wired up according to a menu prepared by codebreakers. At each position of the rotors, an electrical test would be applied. For a large number of the settings, the test would lead to a logical contradiction, ...
See also:Bombe, Bombe - The Enigma machine, Bombe - The principle of the bombe, Bombe - Cribs, Bombe - The plugboard, Bombe - Reasoning about steckered values, Bombe - Automating deduction using an electrical circuit, Bombe - In practice, Bombe - The British bombe, Bombe - History and use, Bombe - United States Navy bombes Read more here: » Bombe: Encyclopedia II - Bombe - The principle of the bombe |
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| | | | | Deduction: Encyclopedia II - Bombe - History and use Using Polish cryptological techniques, British cryptanalysts at Bletchley Park were, at the beginning of World War II, able to read Enigma messages by exploiting weaknesses in German operating procedures. The British cryptologists were concerned that the Germans might at any moment change their procedures, rendering those cryptological methods obsolete.
To preempt this, British mathematician Alan Turing designed the bombe on a more general principle – the assumption of the presence of text that analysts could guess somewhere in the ...
See also:Bombe, Bombe - The Enigma machine, Bombe - The principle of the bombe, Bombe - Cribs, Bombe - The plugboard, Bombe - Reasoning about steckered values, Bombe - Automating deduction using an electrical circuit, Bombe - In practice, Bombe - The British bombe, Bombe - History and use, Bombe - United States Navy bombes Read more here: » Bombe: Encyclopedia II - Bombe - History and use |
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