Many figures in the 20th century philosophy of mathematics are identified as "postmodern" due to their rejection of mathematics as a strictly neutral point of view. Some figures in the philosophy of science, especially Thomas Samuel Kuhn and David Bohm, are also so viewed. Some see the ultimate expression of postmodernism in science and mathematics in the cognitive science of mathematics, which seeks to characterize the habit of mathematics itself as strictly human, and based in human cognitive bias. The term "Neo-liberalism" has been ...

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Postmodernism, Postmodernism - Uses of the term, Postmodernism - Art, Postmodernism - Sociology, Postmodernism - Lifestyle, Postmodernism - Philosophy, Postmodernism - A general definition, Postmodernism - The development of postmodernism, Postmodernism - Early usage of the term, Postmodernism - Deconstruction, Postmodernism - Postmodernism's manifestations, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in language, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in art, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in architecture, Postmodernism - Postmodernism Planning & Urban Design, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in graphic design, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in literature, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in music, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in political science, Postmodernism - Postmodernism in philosophy, Postmodernism - Postmodernism and post-structuralism, Postmodernism - Postmodernity and digital communications, Postmodernism - Postmodernism and its critics, Postmodernism - Relationship between modernism and postmodernism, Postmodernism - Theoretical postmodernism, Postmodernism - Cultural and political postmodernism, Postmodernism - Notes

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Race and intelligence - Basic concepts. This research is grounded in several controversial assumptions: the social categories of race and ethnicity are concordant with genetic categories, such as biogeographic ancestry. intelligence is measurable (see psychometrics) and is dominated by a unitary general cognitive ability. Racial distinctions are most often made on the basis of skin color, facial features, ancestry, and national origin. Some scientists argue that ...

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Race and intelligence, Race and intelligence - Background information, Race and intelligence - Basic concepts, Race and intelligence - History, Race and intelligence - Public controversy, Race and intelligence - Media portrayal, Race and intelligence - Utility of research and racism, Race and intelligence - Accusations of bias, Race and intelligence - Average test score gaps among races, Race and intelligence - Brain size employment tests and school achievement, Race and intelligence - Cultural or genetic explanation?, Race and intelligence - Introduction, Race and intelligence - Cultural explanations, Race and intelligence - Genetic explanations, Race and intelligence - Expert opinion, Race and intelligence - Significance of group IQ differences, Race and intelligence - Within societies, Race and intelligence - Between nations, Race and intelligence - For highly successful minorities, Race and intelligence - Policy implications, Race and intelligence - End material, Race and intelligence - Further reading, Race and intelligence - Notes, Race and intelligence - References, Race and intelligence - External links

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Race and intelligence - Media portrayal. Main article: Race and intelligence (Media portrayal) Media portrayal of many IQ-related topics, including race and intelligence research, was found in a 1987 study to be misrepresentative of opinion among scholars in relevant fields, including subfields of psychology, sociology, cognitive science, education, and genetics (Snyderman and Rothman 1988). Among these scholars (in 1987), 53% thought that ...

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Race and intelligence, Race and intelligence - Background information, Race and intelligence - Basic concepts, Race and intelligence - History, Race and intelligence - Public controversy, Race and intelligence - Media portrayal, Race and intelligence - Utility of research and racism, Race and intelligence - Accusations of bias, Race and intelligence - Average test score gaps among races, Race and intelligence - World-wide scores, Race and intelligence - Brain size employment tests and school achievement, Race and intelligence - Cultural or genetic explanation?, Race and intelligence - Introduction, Race and intelligence - Cultural explanations, Race and intelligence - Genetic explanations, Race and intelligence - Expert opinion, Race and intelligence - Significance of group IQ differences, Race and intelligence - Within societies, Race and intelligence - Between nations, Race and intelligence - For highly successful minorities, Race and intelligence - Policy implications, Race and intelligence - End material, Race and intelligence - Further reading, Race and intelligence - Notes, Race and intelligence - References, Race and intelligence - External links

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Race and intelligence - Media portrayal. Media portrayal of many IQ-related topics, including race and intelligence research, was found in a 1987 study to be misrepresentative of opinion among scholars in relevant fields, including subfields of psychology, sociology, cognitive science, education, and genetics (Snyderman and Rothman 1988). Among these scholars (in 1987), 53% thought that the black-white gap was partially genetic and 17% thought that it was entirely environmental. (See below: Race and intelligence#Expert opinion) Ra ...

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Race and intelligence, Race and intelligence - Background information, Race and intelligence - Basic concepts, Race and intelligence - History, Race and intelligence - Public controversy, Race and intelligence - Media portrayal, Race and intelligence - Utility of research and racism, Race and intelligence - Accusations of bias, Race and intelligence - Average test score gaps among races, Race and intelligence - Brain size employment tests and school achievement, Race and intelligence - Cultural or genetic explanation?, Race and intelligence - Introduction, Race and intelligence - Cultural explanations, Race and intelligence - Genetic explanations, Race and intelligence - Expert opinion, Race and intelligence - Significance of group IQ differences, Race and intelligence - Within societies, Race and intelligence - Between nations, Race and intelligence - For highly successful minorities, Race and intelligence - Policy implications, Race and intelligence - End material, Race and intelligence - Further reading, Race and intelligence - Notes, Race and intelligence - References, Race and intelligence - External links

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Race and intelligence - Basic concepts. This research is grounded in several controversial assumptions: the social categories of race and ethnicity are concordant with genetic categories, such as biogeographic ancestry. intelligence is measurable (see psychometrics) and is dominated by a unitary general cognitive ability. Main article: Race Racial distinctions are most often made on the basis of skin color, facial features, ancestry, and natio ...

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Race and intelligence, Race and intelligence - Background information, Race and intelligence - Basic concepts, Race and intelligence - History, Race and intelligence - Public controversy, Race and intelligence - Media portrayal, Race and intelligence - Utility of research and racism, Race and intelligence - Accusations of bias, Race and intelligence - Average test score gaps among races, Race and intelligence - World-wide scores, Race and intelligence - Brain size employment tests and school achievement, Race and intelligence - Cultural or genetic explanation?, Race and intelligence - Introduction, Race and intelligence - Cultural explanations, Race and intelligence - Genetic explanations, Race and intelligence - Expert opinion, Race and intelligence - Significance of group IQ differences, Race and intelligence - Within societies, Race and intelligence - Between nations, Race and intelligence - For highly successful minorities, Race and intelligence - Policy implications, Race and intelligence - End material, Race and intelligence - Further reading, Race and intelligence - Notes, Race and intelligence - References, Race and intelligence - External links

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Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption. The findings of earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as junk science, as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using on ...

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Cannabis drug, Cannabis drug - History, Cannabis drug - Ancient history, Cannabis drug - Recent history, Cannabis drug - New breeding and cultivation techniques, Cannabis drug - Immediate effects of human consumption, Cannabis drug - Cognitive behavioral or perceptual, Cannabis drug - Physical or sensory, Cannabis drug - Active ingredients metabolism and method of activity, Cannabis drug - Lethal dose, Cannabis drug - Long-term effects of human consumption, Cannabis drug - Tolerance withdrawal and dreams, Cannabis drug - Long-term effects on the mind and brain, Cannabis drug - Long-term physical effects of smoking, Cannabis drug - Medicinal use, Cannabis drug - Spiritual use, Cannabis drug - Preparations for human consumption, Cannabis drug - Smoking, Cannabis drug - Oral consumption, Cannabis drug - Vaporization, Cannabis drug - Legality, Cannabis drug - Prohibition and criminalization in the US, Cannabis drug - Related articles

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Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption. The findings of earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as junk science, as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using on ...

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Cannabis drug, Cannabis drug - History, Cannabis drug - Ancient history, Cannabis drug - Recent history, Cannabis drug - Wild cannabis, Cannabis drug - New breeding and cultivation techniques, Cannabis drug - Immediate effects of human consumption, Cannabis drug - Cognitive behavioral or perceptual, Cannabis drug - Physical or sensory, Cannabis drug - Active ingredients metabolism and method of activity, Cannabis drug - Lethal dose, Cannabis drug - Long-term effects of human consumption, Cannabis drug - Tolerance withdrawal and dreams, Cannabis drug - Long-term effects on the mind and brain, Cannabis drug - Long-term physical effects of smoking, Cannabis drug - Medicinal use, Cannabis drug - Spiritual use, Cannabis drug - Preparations for human consumption, Cannabis drug - Smoking, Cannabis drug - Oral consumption, Cannabis drug - Vaporization, Cannabis drug - Legality, Cannabis drug - Prohibition and criminalization in the US, Cannabis drug - Related articles

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In 2002, Nick Bostrom asked "Is it possible to sum up the essence of observation selection effects in a simple statement?" He concluded that it might be, but that: Many 'anthropic principles' are simply confused. Some, especially those drawing inspiration from Brandon Carter's seminal papers, are sound, but... they are too weak to do any real scientific work. In particular, I argue that existing methodology does not permit any observational consequences to be derived from contemporary cosmological theories, in spite of the fact ...

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Anthropic principle, Anthropic principle - Origin, Anthropic principle - Proponents and versions, Anthropic principle - The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, Anthropic principle - Anthropic principle in string theory, Anthropic principle - Anthropic bias and anthropic reasoning, Anthropic principle - Footnote

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Current cognitive neuropsychology research points toward a two-factor approach to the cause of monothematic delusions1. The first factor being the anomalous experience—often a neurological defect—which leads to the delusion and the second factor being an impairment of the belief formation cognitive process. For example of one of these first factors, several studies point toward Capgras delusion being the result of a disorder of the affect component of face perception. As a result, while the person can recognize their sp ...

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Monothematic delusion, Monothematic delusion - Types, Monothematic delusion - Causes

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In cybernetics, satisficing is optimisation where all costs, including the cost of the optimisation calculations and the cost of getting information for use in those calculations, are considered. As a result, the eventual choice is usually sub-optimal as regards the main goal of the optimisation, i.e. different from the optimum in the case that the costs of choosing are not taken into account.

Satisficing, Satisficing - Economics, Satisficing - Cybernetics Artificial Intelligence, Satisficing - Cognitive Psychology

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Colin Camerer - Daniel Kahneman - David Laibson - George Loewenstein - Matthew Rabin - Robert Shiller - Richard Thaler - Amos Tversky - Paul Slovic - Andrew Lo - Andrei Shleifer - Hersh Shefrin Behavioral finance - Non-specialists whose work is important to the field. Herbert Simon - Gerd Gigerenzer - Fischer Black - John Tooby - Leda Cosmides - Paul Rubin - Donald Rubin - Ronald Coase ...

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Behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - History, Behavioral finance - Methodology, Behavioral finance - Key observations, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance topics, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance models, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - Behavioral economics topics, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral economics, Behavioral finance - Key figures, Behavioral finance - Non-specialists whose work is important to the field

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Dan Ariely - Colin Camerer - Daniel Kahneman - David Laibson - George Loewenstein - Matthew Rabin - Robert Shiller - Richard Thaler - Amos Tversky - Paul Slovic - Andrew Lo - Andrei Shleifer - Hersh Shefrin Behavioral finance - Non-specialists whose work is important to the field. Herbert Simon - Gerd Gigerenzer - Fischer Black - John Tooby - Leda Cosmides - Paul Rubin - Donald Rubin - Ronald Coase ...

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Behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - History, Behavioral finance - Methodology, Behavioral finance - Key observations, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance topics, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance models, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - Behavioral economics topics, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral economics, Behavioral finance - Key figures, Behavioral finance - Non-specialists whose work is important to the field

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Because so many religious beliefs are based on tradition and authority and are often cognitively biased, freethinkers are often at odds with religious views and may discard them altogether. Although freethinkers are irreligious it is important to note that freethinkers can have moral foundations just as strong as those who are religious; the mere fact a person is irreligious has no correlation with virtuous convictions such as kindness to and tolerance of others, service to ...

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Freethinking, Freethinking - Freethinking in philosophy/religion, Freethinking - Freethinking and irreligion

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When something bad happens to me I attribute it to external causes. When something good happens to me, I attribute it to internal causes. The reverse is also true. When something bad happens to somebody else, it is because of internal causes. If something good happens to another person, it is attributed to external causes. Example: I do well on a test. It is because I studied hard, or because I am smart. (Internal Cause) Example: Someone else does well on a test. It is bec ...

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Fundamental attribution error, Fundamental attribution error - Classic demonstration study: Jones and Harris 1967, Fundamental attribution error - Everyday example, Fundamental attribution error - Layman's Terms, Fundamental attribution error - Why the fundamental attribution error occurs, Fundamental attribution error - How to reduce the error's effects, Fundamental attribution error - Related findings

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The concept of relativism has importance both for philosophers and for anthropologists, although in different ways. Philosophers explore how beliefs might or might not in fact depend for their truth upon such items as language, conceptual scheme, culture, and so forth; with ethical relativism furnishing just one example. Anthropologists, on the other hand, occupy themselves with describing actual human behavior. For them, relativism refers to a methodological stance, in which the researcher suspends (or brackets) his or her own cultural bias ...

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Relativism, Relativism - Advocates of relativism, Relativism - Arguments against relativism, Relativism - Counter-arguments, Relativism - The Catholic Church and relativism, Relativism - John Paul II, Relativism - Benedict XVI, Relativism - See Also

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Models in behavioral economics are typically addressed to a particular observed market anomaly and modify standard neo-classical models by describing decision makers as using heuristics and being affected by framing effects. In general, behavioural economics sits within the neoclassical framework, though the standard assumption of rational behaviour is often challenged. Heuristics Prospect theory - Loss aversion - Status quo bias - Gambler's fallacy - Self-serving bias Framing Cog ...

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Behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - History, Behavioral finance - Methodology, Behavioral finance - Key observations, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance topics, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance models, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - Behavioral economics topics, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral economics, Behavioral finance - Key figures, Behavioral finance - Non-specialists whose work is important to the field

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Noting the great similarity of magical thinking in all types of human societies and eras of recorded history, some cognitive scientists suggest that these ways of thinking are intrinsic to humanity. Many articles in neuroscience have shown that the human brain excels at pattern matching, but that humans do not have a good filter for distinguishing between perceived patterns and actual patterns. Thus, people often are led to see "relations ...

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Magical thinking, Magical thinking - Overview, Magical thinking - Magical thinking exists in most people, Magical thinking - Magical thinking in mental illness, Magical thinking - Magical thinking in children and adolescents, Magical thinking - Magical thinking in alternative medicine, Magical thinking - Science and magical claims, Magical thinking - Personal experience, Magical thinking - Interpersonal magic, Magical thinking - Magical effects on other objects

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Wigner's work provided a fresh insight into both physics and the philosophy of mathematics. Specifically, it speculated on the relationship between the philosophy of science and the foundations of mathematics: It is difficult to avoid the impression that a miracle confronts us here, quite comparable in its striking nature to the miracle that the human mind can string a thousand arguments together wit ...

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The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences - The miracle of mathematics in the natural sciences, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences - The deep connection between science and mathematics

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It is generally agreed that biases can creep into our decision making processes, calling into question the correctness of a decision. Below is a list of some of the more common cognitive biases. Selective search for evidence - We tend to be willing to gather facts that support certain conclusions but disregard other facts that support different conclusions. Premature termination of search for evidence - We tend to accept the first alternative that looks like it might work. Conservatism and inertia - Unwillingne ...

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Decision making, Decision making - Decision making style, Decision making - Cognitive and personal biases in decision making, Decision making - Cognitive neuroscience of decision making, Decision making - Decision making in groups, Decision making - Principles, Decision making - Decision making in one's personal life, Decision making - Decision making in healthcare, Decision making - Path dependency, Decision making - Decision making in business

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Among technically literate people, there is a consensus that mathematics is a neutral point of view, indeed that if logic itself is a valid mode of investigation, mathematics must equally be one. Mathematics is in some sense "useful", and insofar as it is equally useful to two humans, it is "neutral". However, throughout the early 20th century, the foundation ontology of algebra was in doubt: Alfred North Whitehead, Bertrand Russell, and Kurt Gödel establish ...

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Where Mathematics Comes From, Where Mathematics Comes From - Math is reality. Why do I care about linguists or psychologists?, Where Mathematics Comes From - An embodied theory?, Where Mathematics Comes From - Bodies and senses create math?, Where Mathematics Comes From - Brains in nature, Where Mathematics Comes From - What is the agenda?, Where Mathematics Comes From - Mathematics and politics, Where Mathematics Comes From - Mathematics of doing mathematics of feeling, Where Mathematics Comes From - Does mathematics apply to other life forms?, Where Mathematics Comes From - Can this stuff ever be proven?, Where Mathematics Comes From - How would this change the science?, Where Mathematics Comes From - Does this imply that certain sciences are over?, Where Mathematics Comes From - If mathematics is subjective is all science cognitive?, Where Mathematics Comes From - Critiques

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There are three main themes in behavioral finance and economics (Shefrin, 2002): Heuristics: People often make decisions based on approximate rules of thumb, not strictly rational analyses. See also cognitive biases and bounded rationality. Framing: The way a problem or decision is presented to the decision maker will affect their action. Market inefficiencies: There are explanations for observed market outcomes that are contrary to rational expectations and market efficiency. These include mispricings, non-rat ...

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Behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - History, Behavioral finance - Methodology, Behavioral finance - Key observations, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance topics, Behavioral finance - Behavioral finance models, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral finance, Behavioral finance - Behavioral economics topics, Behavioral finance - Criticisms of behavioral economics, Behavioral finance - Key figures, Behavioral finance - Non-specialists whose work is important to the field

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In economics, satisficing is a behaviour which attempts to achieve at least some minimum level of a particular variable, but which does not strive to achieve its maximum possible value. The most common application of the concept in economics is in the behavioural theory of the firm, which, unlike traditional accounts, postulates that producers treat profit not as a goal to be maximized, but as a constraint. Under these theories, although at least a critical level of profit must be achieved by firms; thereafter, priority is a ...

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Satisficing, Satisficing - Economics, Satisficing - Cybernetics Artificial Intelligence, Satisficing - Cognitive Psychology

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