Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease that affects the brain and spinal cord. MS can cause a variety of symptoms, including changes in sensation, visual problems, muscle weakness, depression, and difficulties with coordination and speech. Although many patients lead full and rewarding lives, MS can cause impaired mobility and disability in the more severe cases. Multiple sclerosis affects neurons, the cells of the brain and spinal cord that carry information, create thought and perception and allow the brain to co ...

Including:

• Multiple sclerosis - Signs and symptoms
• Multiple sclerosis - Diagnosis
• Multiple sclerosis - Disease course and clinical subtypes
• Multiple sclerosis - Factors triggering a relapse
• Multiple sclerosis - Pathophysiology
• Multiple sclerosis - How multiple sclerosis causes damage
• Multiple sclerosis - Why multiple sclerosis occurs
• Multiple sclerosis - Treatment
• Multiple sclerosis - Management of acute attacks
• Multiple sclerosis - Management of relapsing-remitting MS
• Multiple sclerosis - Management of progressive MS
• Multiple sclerosis - Management of demyelination without a diagnosis of MS
• Multiple sclerosis - Management of the effects of MS
• Multiple sclerosis - Therapies under investigation
• Multiple sclerosis - Side effects of medications for relapsing-remitting MS
• Multiple sclerosis - Prognosis
• Multiple sclerosis - Epidemiology
• Multiple sclerosis - History
• Multiple sclerosis - Multiple sclerosis in film and television

Read more here: » Multiple sclerosis: Encyclopedia - Multiple sclerosis

Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) (EC 2.1.1.6) is an enzyme first discovered by biochemist Julius Axelrod. COMT is the name given to the gene which codes for this enzyme. The O in the name stands for the ortho position of the methyl group. Catechol-O-methyl transferase is involved in the breakdown of the catecholamine neurotransmitters, dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine. The enzyme introduces a methyl group t ...

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Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of beauty and the moral value of art, so the aestheticization of violence is the process of making the act and the product of violence appear attractive. Aestheticization of violence - The power of art. High culture has the capacity to aestheticize violence into a form of autonomous art. "If any human act evokes the aesthetic experience of the sublime, certainly it is the act of murder. And if murder can be experienced aesthetically, the murdere ...

Including:

• Aestheticization of violence - The power of art
• Aestheticization of violence - Aestheticization through art
• Aestheticization of violence - First step towards an answer
• Aestheticization of violence - Semiotic rules in action
• Aestheticization of violence - An example

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Acceptance Anger Anticipation Boredom Disgust Envy Fear Guilt Hate Hope Joy Jealousy Love Remorse Sadness Sorrow Surprise Acceptance, in spirituality, mindfulness, and human psychology, usually refers to the experience of a situation without an intention to change that situation. Acceptance does not require that change is possible or even conceivable, nor does it require that the situation be desired or approve ...

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The modern science of cognitive neuropsychology emerged during the 1960s. However there have been a series of influential studies during the last two centuries which have been critical in laying the foundations for studying brain impairment with a view to understanding normal psychological function. The case of Phineas Gage is one of the earliest examples where a specific brain injury gave clues to the function of a particular brain area. Gage obtained his injury after an accident during the construction of part of a railroad in 1848 ...

See also:

Cognitive neuropsychology, Cognitive neuropsychology - History, Cognitive neuropsychology - Methods

Read more here: » Cognitive neuropsychology: Encyclopedia II - Cognitive neuropsychology - History

How children acquire native language (L1) and the relevance of this to foreign language (L2) learning has long been debated. Although evidence for L2 learning ability declining with age is controversial, a common notion is that children learn L2s easily, whilst older learners rarely achieve fluency. This assumption stems from ‘critical period’ (CP) ideas. A CP was originally postulated by Lenneberg in 1967 for L1 acquisition, but considerable interest now surrounds age effects on second language acquisition (SLA). SLA theories explain le ...

See also:

Second language acquisition, Second language acquisition - Describing learner language, Second language acquisition - Error analysis, Second language acquisition - Interlanguage, Second language acquisition - Developmental patterns, Second language acquisition - Variability, Second language acquisition - Learner-external factors, Second language acquisition - Social effects, Second language acquisition - Input and intake, Second language acquisition - Interaction, Second language acquisition - Pedagogical effects, Second language acquisition - Learner-internal factors, Second language acquisition - Summary of Critical Period Research to date, Second language acquisition - Other Directions of Research, Second language acquisition - Cognitive approaches, Second language acquisition - Language transfer, Second language acquisition - Linguistic universals, Second language acquisition - Individual variation, Second language acquisition - Language aptitude, Second language acquisition - Age, Second language acquisition - Strategy use, Second language acquisition - Affective factors, Second language acquisition - Understanding SLA, Second language acquisition - Concepts of ability, Second language acquisition - References and further reading

Read more here: » Second language acquisition: Encyclopedia II - Second language acquisition - Summary of Critical Period Research to date

The twentieth century has seen a number of counter-intuitive theories developed, most notably: Quantum mechanics, which suggests that instead of being made out of particles, the universe is best described by complex-valued wave functions which behave very differently from particles in many situations. Relativity theory is also counter-intuitive, because it reformulates the conventional ideas of separate "space" and "time", "mass" and "energy" into a four-dimension ...

See also:

Counter-intuitive, Counter-intuitive - Examples of counter-intuitive theories, Counter-intuitive - Counter-productive, Counter-intuitive - Michelson-Morley experiment

Read more here: » Counter-intuitive: Encyclopedia II - Counter-intuitive - Examples of counter-intuitive theories

According to Yonas, nanotechnology makes it feasible to use brain implants to moderate behavior or brain functioning, allowing brains with disorders or brains that have been damaged to function normally.[2] Another developing field of cognotechnology focuses on remote sensing brain function. Sensed brain function will include the intention to commit deception, and according to Yonas, is likely to be used for more efficient iden ...

See also:

Cognotechnology, Cognotechnology - Potential applications

Read more here: » Cognotechnology: Encyclopedia II - Cognotechnology - Potential applications

Animal testing - United States. In the United States, animal testing is primarily regulated by the 1985 Animal Welfare Act, which is enforced by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). It contains provisions to ensure animals used in research receive humane care and treatment. [16] However mice, rats and birds are exempt, meaning over 95% of research animals in the USA are not covered by this legislation. [17] The Act does require each institution set ...

See also:

Animal testing, Animal testing - Terminology, Animal testing - Regulation, Animal testing - United States, Animal testing - Europe, Animal testing - Japan, Animal testing - Number of animals used, Animal testing - Species used, Animal testing - Types of experiment, Animal testing - Toxicology tests, Animal testing - Drug testing, Animal testing - Controversy, Animal testing - Advocates of animal testing, Animal testing - Opponents of animal testing, Animal testing - Allegations of abuse, Animal testing - Huntingdon Life Sciences, Animal testing - Covance, Animal testing - University of Cambridge, Animal testing - University of California Riverside, Animal testing - Columbia University, Animal testing - Cosmetic testing on animals, Animal testing - Alternatives to animal testing

Read more here: » Animal testing: Encyclopedia II - Animal testing - Regulation

Mainstream treatment for anxiety consists of the prescription of anxiolytic agents and/or referral to a cognitive-behavioral therapist. There are indications that a combination of the two can be more effective than either one. Anxiety - Prescription medication. The acute symptoms of anxiety are most often controlled with anxiolytic agents such as benzodiazepines. Diazepam (valium) was one of the first such drugs. Today we see a wide range of anti-anxiety agents that are based on benzodiazepines, although o ...

See also:

Anxiety, Anxiety - Diagnosis, Anxiety - Diagnosis using a blood test, Anxiety - Generalized anxiety disorder, Anxiety - Panic disorder, Anxiety - Phobia, Anxiety - Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Anxiety - Treatment overview, Anxiety - Prescription medication, Anxiety - Cognitive-behavioral therapy, Anxiety - Other coping strategies, Anxiety - Anxiety in palliative care, Anxiety - Anxiety and alternative medicine, Anxiety - Existential Anxiety, Anxiety - Test Anxiety

Read more here: » Anxiety: Encyclopedia II - Anxiety - Treatment overview

Asperger syndrome (sometimes called Asperger's syndrome, AS, or the more common shorthand Asperger's), is characterized as one of the five pervasive developmental disorders, and is commonly referred to as a form of high-functioning autism. In very broad terms, individuals with Asperger's have normal or above average intellectual capacity, and atypical or less well developed social skills, often with emotional/social development or integration happening later than usual as a result. The term "Asperger's synd ...

Including:

• Asperger syndrome - Prevalence
• Asperger syndrome - Characteristics
• Asperger syndrome - Social impairments
• Asperger syndrome - Narrow intense interests
• Asperger syndrome - Speech and language peculiarities
• Asperger syndrome - Other characteristics
• Asperger syndrome - Living with Asperger syndrome
• Asperger syndrome - Definitions and diagnostic criteria
• Asperger syndrome - Relationship to autism
• Asperger syndrome - Possible causes and origins
• Asperger syndrome - A gift and a curse
• Asperger syndrome - Speculation about recognized people who may have Asperger syndrome
• Asperger syndrome - Shift away from view as a disease
• Asperger syndrome - Criticisms and controversies
• Asperger syndrome - Asperger syndrome as a social construct
• Asperger syndrome - The extreme male brain theory
• Asperger syndrome - Culture

Read more here: » Asperger syndrome: Encyclopedia - Asperger syndrome

Artificial consciousness (AC), also known as machine consciousness (MC) or synthetic consciousness, is a field related to artificial intelligence and cognitive robotics whose aim is to define that which would have to be synthesized were consciousness to be found in an engineered artefact.1 The idea of producing an artificial sentient being is ancient and is featured in numerous myths such as the Golem, the Greek promethean myth, mechanical men in Chrétien d ...

Including:

• Artificial consciousness - The nature of consciousness
• Artificial consciousness - Information processing and consciousness
• Artificial consciousness - Consciousness in digital computers
• Artificial consciousness - Schools of thought
• Artificial consciousness - Artificial consciousness as a field of study
• Artificial consciousness - Practical approaches
• Artificial consciousness - Franklin’s Intelligent Distribution Agent
• Artificial consciousness - Haikonen’s Cognitive architecture
• Artificial consciousness - Testing for artificial consciousness
• Artificial consciousness - The ethics of artificial consciousness
• Artificial consciousness - Artificial consciousness in literature and movies

Read more here: » Artificial consciousness: Encyclopedia - Artificial consciousness

Animal testing refers to the use of non-human animals in experiments. It is estimated that 50–100 million animals worldwide [4] [5] [6] are used annually and subsequently killed in scientific procedures, mostly inside universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to industry. Testing is also carried out on farms, in defense-research establishments, and by public-health authorities, on a variety of species ...

Including:

• Animal testing - Terminology
• Animal testing - Regulation
• Animal testing - United States
• Animal testing - Europe
• Animal testing - Japan
• Animal testing - Number of animals used
• Animal testing - Species used
• Animal testing - Types of experiment
• Animal testing - Toxicology tests
• Animal testing - Drug testing
• Animal testing - Controversy
• Animal testing - Advocates of animal testing
• Animal testing - Opponents of animal testing
• Animal testing - Allegations of abuse
• Animal testing - Huntingdon Life Sciences
• Animal testing - Covance
• Animal testing - University of Cambridge
• Animal testing - University of California Riverside
• Animal testing - Columbia University
• Animal testing - Cosmetic testing on animals
• Animal testing - Alternatives to animal testing

Read more here: » Animal testing: Encyclopedia - Animal testing

Analogy is either the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an argument from a particular to another particular, as opposed to deduction, induction and abduction, where at least one of the premises or the conclusion is general. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a simil ...

Including:

• Analogy - Models and theories of analogy
• Analogy - Identity of relation
• Analogy - Shared abstraction
• Analogy - Special case of induction
• Analogy - Hidden deduction
• Analogy - Shared structure
• Analogy - High-level perception
• Analogy - Applications and types of analogy
• Analogy - Linguistics
• Analogy - Mathematics
• Analogy - Artificial intelligence
• Analogy - Anatomy
• Analogy - Law
• Analogy - Engineering

Read more here: » Analogy: Encyclopedia - Analogy

Bioconservatism (a portmanteau word combining "biology" and "conservatism"), is a stance of hesitancy about biotechnological development especially if it is perceived to threaten a social order. Strong bioconservative positions include opposition to the genetic, prosthetic and cognitive modification of human beings in particular. Whether arising from a conventionally right-leaning politics of religious and cultural conservatism or from a conventionally left-leaning politics of environmentalism, bioconservative positions oppose ...

Including:

• Bioconservatism - List of prominent bioconservatives

Read more here: » Bioconservatism: Encyclopedia - Bioconservatism

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the frontal part of the cingulate cortex and includes Brodmann's area 24 (ventral ACC) and 32 (dorsal ACC). The ACC forms a collar around the corpus callosum, which relays neural signals between the right and left hemispheres. The ACC appears to play a role in a wide variety of autonomic functions, such as regulating heart rate and blood pressure, and is vital to cognitive functions, such as reward anticipation, decision-making, empathy, and emotion. Neuroscientists indicate the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex is primarily related to rational cog ...

Including:

• Anterior cingulate cortex - See Also:

Read more here: » Anterior cingulate cortex: Encyclopedia - Anterior cingulate cortex

Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American psychologist, who, along with Abraham Maslow, was the founder of the humanist approach to psychology. He was also instrumental in the development of non-directive psychotherapy, which he initially termed Client-Centered Therapy. He later renamed it as the Person-Centered Approach (PCA) to reflect that his theories were meant to apply to all interactions between people, not just to those between therapist and client. Today PCA is also called pe ...

Including:

• Carl Rogers - Biography
• Carl Rogers - Contributions to psychology
• Carl Rogers - Quotes

Read more here: » Carl Rogers: Encyclopedia - Carl Rogers

Acoustic neuroma (or Vestibular Schwannoma) is a benign tumor of the the myelin forming cells called "Schwann cells" of the 8th cranial nerve, known as the acoustic nerve, (or more properly the vestibulocochlear nerve) just after it has left the brainstem, in the pontine angle; also at the point where the peripheral part of the nerve meets the brain part of the nerve called "Hensen's node". Acoustic neuroma - Assessment. Associated symptoms are unilateral sensorineural hearing loss/deafness and verti ...

Including:

• Acoustic neuroma - Assessment
• Acoustic neuroma - Treatment
• Acoustic neuroma - Surgery
• Acoustic neuroma - Radiation Therapy
• Acoustic neuroma - External Links

Read more here: » Acoustic neuroma: Encyclopedia - Acoustic neuroma

Brain to body mass ratio (also known as the Encephalization Quotient - EQ) is a rough estimate of the possible intelligence of an organism. Roughly speaking, the larger an organism is, the more brain mass is required for housekeeping tasks, such as breathing, temperature control, senses, muscle control, etc. The larger the brain is relative to the body, the more brain mass might be available for more complex cognitive tasks. Many people prefer this ratio, rather than simply measuring brain mass alone, be ...

Read more here: » Brain to body mass ratio: Encyclopedia - Brain to body mass ratio

A brain tumour is any intracranial mass created by an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells either normally found in the brain itself: neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells), lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin producing Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and pineal gland, or spread from cancers primarily located in other organs (metastatic tumors). Primary (true) brain tumours are commonly located in the posterior cranial fossa in children and in the anterior two-thirds of the cerebral hemispheres in adult ...

Including:

• Brain tumor - Causes
• Brain tumor - Classification
• Brain tumor - Symptoms
• Brain tumor - Diagnosis
• Brain tumor - Treatment and Prognosis

Read more here: » Brain tumor: Encyclopedia - Brain tumor