Thirty years later, the global warming is seen to have continued. The concern that the cooler temperatures would continue, and perhaps at a faster rate, can now be observed to have been wrong. More has to be learned about climate, but the growing records have shown the cooling concerns of 1975 to have been simplistic and not borne out. As for the prospects of the end of the current interglacial (again, valid only in the absence of human perturbations) recent analysis of deeply buried ice from Antarctica indicates that the present "int ...

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Global cooling, Global cooling - Introduction: general awareness and concern, Global cooling - Physical mechanisms, Global cooling - Aerosols, Global cooling - Orbital forcing, Global cooling - Concern in the Middle of the Twentieth Century, Global cooling - Pre-1970's, Global cooling - 1970s Awareness, Global cooling - 1970 SCEP report, Global cooling - 1971 Paper on Warming and Cooling Factors, Global cooling - 1974 and 1972 National Science Board, Global cooling - 1975 National Academy of Sciences report, Global cooling - 1975 Newsweek article, Global cooling - 1979 WMO conference, Global cooling - Some other climate cooling catastrophes, Global cooling - The present level of knowledge, Global cooling - Climate science has improved, Global cooling - Historical geophysical meaning

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Effects of global warming - Weather. Increasing temperature is likely to lead to increasing precipitation [3] but the effects on storms are less clear. Extratropical storms partly depend on the temperature gradient, which is predicted to weaken in the northern hemisphere as the polar region warms more than the rest of the hemisphere [4]. Wind produced from differences in barometic pressure may increase as radiative forcing inc ...

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Effects of global warming, Effects of global warming - Effects of Global Warming, Effects of global warming - Weather, Effects of global warming - Oceans, Effects of global warming - Ecosystems, Effects of global warming - Further global warming positive feedback, Effects of global warming - Consequences, Effects of global warming - Economic, Effects of global warming - Environmental, Effects of global warming - Health

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See also Mitigation of global warming Effects of global warming - Economic. Main articles: Global warming and agriculture, and [[{{{2}}}]], and [[{{{3}}}]], See also:

Effects of global warming, Effects of global warming - Effects of Global Warming, Effects of global warming - Weather, Effects of global warming - Oceans, Effects of global warming - Ecosystems, Effects of global warming - Further global warming positive feedback, Effects of global warming - Consequences, Effects of global warming - Economic, Effects of global warming - Environmental, Effects of global warming - Health

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Globally, the majority of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions arise from fuel combustion. The remainder is accounted for largely by "fugitive fuel" (consumed in the production and transport of fuel), emissions from industrial processes (excluding fuel combustion), and agriculture: these contributed 5.8%, 5.2% and 3.3% respectively in 1990. Current figures are broadly comparable.[2] Around 17% of emissions are a ...

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Mitigation of global warming, Mitigation of global warming - Greenhouse gas emissions, Mitigation of global warming - Encouraging technology and use changes, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon emissions trading, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon tax, Mitigation of global warming - Legal action, Mitigation of global warming - In developing countries, Mitigation of global warming - Technology, Mitigation of global warming - Electricity generation, Mitigation of global warming - Energy efficiency, Mitigation of global warming - Transport, Mitigation of global warming - Other, Mitigation of global warming - Personal Choices, Mitigation of global warming - Mitigating the effects of global warming

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See also: Kyoto Protocol Mitigation of global warming - Carbon emissions trading. Main article: Carbon emissions trading The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) [4] is the largest multi-national, greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world. It commenced operation on 1 January 2005, and all 25 member states of the European Union participate in the scheme. The scheme has created a new market in carbon dioxide allowances estimated at some Euro 35 billio ...

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Mitigation of global warming, Mitigation of global warming - Greenhouse gas emissions, Mitigation of global warming - Encouraging technology and use changes, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon emissions trading, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon tax, Mitigation of global warming - Legal action, Mitigation of global warming - In developing countries, Mitigation of global warming - Technology, Mitigation of global warming - Electricity generation, Mitigation of global warming - Energy efficiency, Mitigation of global warming - Transport, Mitigation of global warming - Other, Mitigation of global warming - Personal Choices, Mitigation of global warming - Mitigating the effects of global warming

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Mitigation of global warming - Electricity generation. Main articles: Renewable energy and Renewable energy development One means of reducing carbon emissions is the development of new technologies, such as renewable energy. Currently governments subsidise fossil fuels by an estimated $235 billion a year.[14] However, in some countries, government action has boosted the development of renewable energy technologies—for example, a programme to put solar panels on the roofs of a million homes ...

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Mitigation of global warming, Mitigation of global warming - Greenhouse gas emissions, Mitigation of global warming - Encouraging technology and use changes, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon emissions trading, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon tax, Mitigation of global warming - Legal action, Mitigation of global warming - In developing countries, Mitigation of global warming - Technology, Mitigation of global warming - Electricity generation, Mitigation of global warming - Energy efficiency, Mitigation of global warming - Transport, Mitigation of global warming - Other, Mitigation of global warming - Personal Choices, Mitigation of global warming - Mitigating the effects of global warming

Read more here: » Mitigation of global warming: Encyclopedia II - Mitigation of global warming - Technology

Individual actions can include: supporting political candidates who have a plan to convert to wind power and electric vehicles. avoiding airplane flights (aircraft contribute 3.5% of the world's greenhouse gases[36]) choosing a more fuel-efficient car, using public transport and using alternatives as often as possible switching off appliances instead of leaving them on stand by buying electricity generated from renewable sources buying offset carbon credits, which are used to plant forests or support energy efficiency measures etc< ...

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Mitigation of global warming, Mitigation of global warming - Greenhouse gas emissions, Mitigation of global warming - Encouraging technology and use changes, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon emissions trading, Mitigation of global warming - Carbon tax, Mitigation of global warming - Legal action, Mitigation of global warming - In developing countries, Mitigation of global warming - Technology, Mitigation of global warming - Electricity generation, Mitigation of global warming - Energy efficiency, Mitigation of global warming - Transport, Mitigation of global warming - Other, Mitigation of global warming - Personal Choices, Mitigation of global warming - Mitigating the effects of global warming

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In the 1970s there was increasing awareness that estimates of global temperatures showed cooling since 1945. The general public had little awareness about carbon dioxide's effects: at the time garbage, chemical disposal, smog, particulate pollution, and acid rain were the focus of the public concern, although Paul Ehrlich mentions the climate change from the greenhouse gases in 1968 [1]. However, not long after the awareness reached the public press in the mid-1970s the temperature trend stopped going down. Even by the early 1970s there was ...

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Global cooling, Global cooling - Introduction: general awareness and concern, Global cooling - Physical mechanisms, Global cooling - Aerosols, Global cooling - Orbital forcing, Global cooling - Concern in the Middle of the Twentieth Century, Global cooling - Pre-1970's, Global cooling - 1970s Awareness, Global cooling - 1970 SCEP report, Global cooling - 1971 Paper on Warming and Cooling Factors, Global cooling - 1974 and 1972 National Science Board, Global cooling - 1975 National Academy of Sciences report, Global cooling - 1975 Newsweek article, Global cooling - 1979 WMO conference, Global cooling - Some other climate cooling catastrophes, Global cooling - The present level of knowledge, Global cooling - Climate science has improved, Global cooling - Historical geophysical meaning

Read more here: » Global cooling: Encyclopedia II - Global cooling - Introduction: general awareness and concern

The following sections discuss a variety of scientific papers and other sources in an attempt to trace the rise and fall of interest in this concept during the 1970s. Global cooling - Pre-1970's. At a conference on climate change held in Boulder, Colorado in 1965, evidence supporting Milankovitch cycles triggered speculation on how the calculated small changes in sunlight might somehow trigger ice ages. In 1966 Cesare Emiliani predicted that "a new glaciation will begin within a few thousand years." In 196 ...

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Global cooling, Global cooling - Introduction: general awareness and concern, Global cooling - Physical mechanisms, Global cooling - Aerosols, Global cooling - Orbital forcing, Global cooling - Concern in the Middle of the Twentieth Century, Global cooling - Pre-1970's, Global cooling - 1970s Awareness, Global cooling - 1970 SCEP report, Global cooling - 1971 Paper on Warming and Cooling Factors, Global cooling - 1974 and 1972 National Science Board, Global cooling - 1975 National Academy of Sciences report, Global cooling - 1975 Newsweek article, Global cooling - 1979 WMO conference, Global cooling - Some other climate cooling catastrophes, Global cooling - The present level of knowledge, Global cooling - Climate science has improved, Global cooling - Historical geophysical meaning

Read more here: » Global cooling: Encyclopedia II - Global cooling - Concern in the Middle of the Twentieth Century

Some researchers have correlated solar variation with changes in the Earth's average temperature and climate - sometimes finding an effect, and sometimes not. When effects are found they have tended to be greater than can be explained by direct response to the change in radiative forcing from solar change, so feedback or amplification mechanisms are required.[13] For a discussion of attribution of causes of current global warmin ...

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Solar variation, Solar variation - History of study of solar variations, Solar variation - Solar activity, Solar variation - Sunspots, Solar variation - Solar cycles, Solar variation - Solar irradiance of Earth and its surface, Solar variation - Solar interactions with Earth, Solar variation - Changes in total irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in ultraviolet irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic flux, Solar variation - Other effects due to solar variation, Solar variation - Geomagnetic effects, Solar variation - Solar proton events, Solar variation - Galactic cosmic rays, Solar variation - Cloud effects, Solar variation - Carbon-14 production, Solar variation - Global warming, Solar variation - Solar variation in climate models, Solar variation - Solar variation theory

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The cooling period is well reproduced by current (2002 on) GCMs that include the effect of sulphate aerosol cooling, so it (now) seems likely that this was the dominant cause. However, at the time there were two physical mechanisms that were most frequently advanced to cause cooling: aerosols and orbital forcing. Global cooling - Aerosols. Human activity - mostly as a by-product of fossil fuel combustion; partly by land-use changes - increases the number of tiny particles (aerosols) in the atmosphere. Thes ...

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Global cooling, Global cooling - Introduction: general awareness and concern, Global cooling - Physical mechanisms, Global cooling - Aerosols, Global cooling - Orbital forcing, Global cooling - Concern in the Middle of the Twentieth Century, Global cooling - Pre-1970's, Global cooling - 1970s Awareness, Global cooling - 1970 SCEP report, Global cooling - 1971 Paper on Warming and Cooling Factors, Global cooling - 1974 and 1972 National Science Board, Global cooling - 1975 National Academy of Sciences report, Global cooling - 1975 Newsweek article, Global cooling - 1979 WMO conference, Global cooling - Some other climate cooling catastrophes, Global cooling - The present level of knowledge, Global cooling - Climate science has improved, Global cooling - Historical geophysical meaning

Read more here: » Global cooling: Encyclopedia II - Global cooling - Physical mechanisms

The longest recorded aspect of solar variations are changes in sunspots. Shortly after astronomers began using the telescope in 1609, sunspots and their motions were observed. Initial study was focused on their nature and behavior. Although the physical aspects of sunspots was not identified until the 1900s, observations continued. Study was hampered during the 1600s and 1700s due to the low number of sunspots during what is now recognized as an extended period of low solar activity, this event named the Maunder Minimum. By the 1 ...

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Solar variation, Solar variation - History of study of solar variations, Solar variation - Solar activity, Solar variation - Sunspots, Solar variation - Solar cycles, Solar variation - Solar irradiance of Earth and its surface, Solar variation - Solar interactions with Earth, Solar variation - Changes in total irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in ultraviolet irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic flux, Solar variation - Other effects due to solar variation, Solar variation - Geomagnetic effects, Solar variation - Solar proton events, Solar variation - Galactic cosmic rays, Solar variation - Cloud effects, Solar variation - Carbon-14 production, Solar variation - Global warming, Solar variation - Solar variation in climate models, Solar variation - Solar variation theory

Read more here: » Solar variation: Encyclopedia II - Solar variation - History of study of solar variations

Solar variation - Sunspots. Sunspots are relatively dark areas on the surface of the Sun and are thus cooler than its average surface. The number of sunspots correlates with the intensity of solar radiation. The variation is small (of the order of 1 W/m² or 0.1% of the total) and was only established once satellite measurements of solar variation became available in the 1980s. Based on work by Abbot, Foukal et al. (1977) realised that higher values of radiation are associated with more sunspots. Nimbus 7 (launch ...

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Solar variation, Solar variation - History of study of solar variations, Solar variation - Solar activity, Solar variation - Sunspots, Solar variation - Solar cycles, Solar variation - Solar irradiance of Earth and its surface, Solar variation - Solar interactions with Earth, Solar variation - Changes in total irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in ultraviolet irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic flux, Solar variation - Other effects due to solar variation, Solar variation - Geomagnetic effects, Solar variation - Solar proton events, Solar variation - Galactic cosmic rays, Solar variation - Cloud effects, Solar variation - Carbon-14 production, Solar variation - Global warming, Solar variation - Solar variation in climate models, Solar variation - Solar variation theory

Read more here: » Solar variation: Encyclopedia II - Solar variation - Solar activity

There are several ways that solar variations may affect Earth. Some variations, such as changes in the size of the Sun, are presently only of interest in the field of astronomy. Solar variation - Changes in total irradiance. Overall brightness may change. The variation during recent cycles has been about 0.1%. Changes corresponding to solar changes with periods of 9-13, 18-25, and >100 years been measured in sea-surface temperatures. Since the Maunder Minimum, over the past 300 years there probably has been an increase of 0.1 ...

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Solar variation, Solar variation - History of study of solar variations, Solar variation - Solar activity, Solar variation - Sunspots, Solar variation - Solar cycles, Solar variation - Solar irradiance of Earth and its surface, Solar variation - Solar interactions with Earth, Solar variation - Changes in total irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in ultraviolet irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic flux, Solar variation - Other effects due to solar variation, Solar variation - Geomagnetic effects, Solar variation - Solar proton events, Solar variation - Galactic cosmic rays, Solar variation - Cloud effects, Solar variation - Carbon-14 production, Solar variation - Global warming, Solar variation - Solar variation in climate models, Solar variation - Solar variation theory

Read more here: » Solar variation: Encyclopedia II - Solar variation - Solar interactions with Earth

Interaction of solar particles, the solar magnetic field, and the Earth's magnetic field, cause variations in the particle and electromagnetic fields at the surface of the planet. Extreme solar events can affect electrical devices. Weakening of the Sun's magnetic field is believed to increase the number of interstellar cosmic rays which reach Earth's atmosphere, altering the types of particles reaching the surface. It has been speculated that a change in cosmic rays could cause an increase in certain types of clouds, affecting Earth's alb ...

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Solar variation, Solar variation - History of study of solar variations, Solar variation - Solar activity, Solar variation - Sunspots, Solar variation - Solar cycles, Solar variation - Solar irradiance of Earth and its surface, Solar variation - Solar interactions with Earth, Solar variation - Changes in total irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in ultraviolet irradiance, Solar variation - Changes in the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic flux, Solar variation - Other effects due to solar variation, Solar variation - Geomagnetic effects, Solar variation - Solar proton events, Solar variation - Galactic cosmic rays, Solar variation - Cloud effects, Solar variation - Carbon-14 production, Solar variation - Global warming, Solar variation - Solar variation in climate models, Solar variation - Solar variation theory

Read more here: » Solar variation: Encyclopedia II - Solar variation - Other effects due to solar variation

Climate changes reflect variations within the Earth's environment, natural processes going on around it, and the impact of humans. The external factors which can shape climate are often called climate forcings and include such processes as variations in solar radiation, the Earth's orbit, and greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate change - Variations within the Earth's climate. Weather, in and of itself, is a chaotic non-linear dynamical system, but in many cases, it is observed that the climate (i.e. the ...

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Climate change, Climate change - Climate change factors, Climate change - Variations within the Earth's climate, Climate change - Non-climate factors driving climate, Climate change - Human influences, Climate change - Interplay of factors, Climate change - Examples of climate change

Read more here: » Climate change: Encyclopedia II - Climate change - Climate change factors

If a certain forcing (for example, solar variation) acts to change the climate, then there may be mechanisms which act to amplify or reduce the effects. These are called positive and negative feedbacks. As far as is known, the climate system is generally stable with respect to these feedbacks: positive feedbacks do not "runaway". Part of the reason for this is the existence of a powerful negative feedback between temperature and emitted radiation, which ...

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Climate change, Climate change - Climate change factors, Climate change - Variations within the Earth's climate, Climate change - Non-climate factors driving climate, Climate change - Human influences, Climate change - Interplay of factors, Climate change - Examples of climate change

Read more here: » Climate change: Encyclopedia II - Climate change - Interplay of factors

Detection and attribution of climate signals, as well as its common-sense meaning, has a more precise definition within the climate change literature, as expressed by the IPCC [9]. Detection of a signal requires demonstrating that an observed change is statistically significantly different than can be explained by natural internal variability. Attribution is to demonstrate that a signal is unlikely to be due entirely to internal variability; consistent with the estimated responses to the give ...

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Attribution of recent climate change, Attribution of recent climate change - Attribution of 20th century climate change, Attribution of recent climate change - Subsequent to the TAR, Attribution of recent climate change - Detection and Attribution, Attribution of recent climate change - Scientific literature and opinion

Read more here: » Attribution of recent climate change: Encyclopedia II - Attribution of recent climate change - Detection and Attribution

Some examples of published and informal support for the consensus view: The attribution of climate change is discussed extensively, with references to peer-reviewed research, in chapter 12 of the IPCC TAR, which discusses The Meaning of Detection and Attribution, Quantitative Comparison of Observed and Modelled Climate Change, Pattern Correlation Methods and Optimal Fingerprint Methods. An essay in Science that surveyed [10] of abstracts related to climate change and concluded that most accepted the consensus ...

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Attribution of recent climate change, Attribution of recent climate change - Attribution of 20th century climate change, Attribution of recent climate change - Subsequent to the TAR, Attribution of recent climate change - Detection and Attribution, Attribution of recent climate change - Scientific literature and opinion

Read more here: » Attribution of recent climate change: Encyclopedia II - Attribution of recent climate change - Scientific literature and opinion

The most fiercely-contested question in current climate change research is over attribution of climate change to either natural/internal or human factors over the period of the instrumental record - from about 1860, and especially over the last 50 years. In the 1995 second assessment report (SAR) the IPCC made the widely quoted statement that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate”. The phrase "balance of evidence" was used deliberately to suggest the (English) common-law standard of proof require ...

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Attribution of recent climate change, Attribution of recent climate change - Attribution of 20th century climate change, Attribution of recent climate change - Subsequent to the TAR, Attribution of recent climate change - Detection and Attribution, Attribution of recent climate change - Scientific literature and opinion

Read more here: » Attribution of recent climate change: Encyclopedia II - Attribution of recent climate change - Attribution of 20th century climate change

Three (or more properly, four) dimensional GCM's discretise the equations for fluid motion and integrate these forward in time. They also contain parametrisations for processes - such as convection - that occur on scales too small to be resolved directly. Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere and impose sea surface temperatures. Coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs (AOGCMs, e.g. HadCM3, EdGCM) combine the two models. AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate models and internalise as many ...

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Climate model, Climate model - Zero-dimensional models, Climate model - Radiative-Convective Models, Climate model - Energy Balance Models, Climate model - EMIC's Earth-system Models of Intermediate Complexity, Climate model - GCM's Global Climate Models or General circulation models, Climate model - Climate models on the web

Read more here: » Climate model: Encyclopedia II - Climate model - GCM's Global Climate Models or General circulation models

It is possible to obtain a very simple model of the radiative equilibrium of the Earth by writing (1 − a)Sπr2 = 4πr2sT4 where the left hand side represents the incoming energy from the Sun the right hand side represents the outgoing energy from the Earth, calculated from the Stefan-Boltzmann law assuming a constant rad ...

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Climate model, Climate model - Zero-dimensional models, Climate model - Radiative-Convective Models, Climate model - Energy Balance Models, Climate model - EMIC's Earth-system Models of Intermediate Complexity, Climate model - GCM's Global Climate Models or General circulation models, Climate model - Climate models on the web

Read more here: » Climate model: Encyclopedia II - Climate model - Zero-dimensional models