Coal - Coal as fuel. See also Clean coal Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 5,800 million short tons (5.3 petagrams) annually, of which about 75% is used for electricity production. The region including China and India uses about 1,700 million short tons (1.5 Pg) annually, forecast to exceed 3,000 million short tons (2.7 Pg) in 2025. ^{See also:}

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

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The word "coal" came from Anglo-Saxon col, which meant charcoal. Coal was not mined in Britain before late Middle Ages; i.e. after ca. 1000 AD. Mineral coal was referred to as sea-coal, either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system; in London, England there is still a Seacoal Lane (off the north side of Ludgate Hill) whe ...

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Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

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Chuvashia is located in the center of the European part of Russia, in the heart of the Volga-Vyatka region, midway between Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. The republic is not large, but is one of the most densely populated regions in the Russian Federation, with a total population of 1.35 million people. It is bordered to the north and west by the Volga River, with the Mari El Republic to the north and Nizhny Novgorod Oblast to the west. To the south it borders Mordovia and Ulyanovsk Oblast, to the east Tatarstan. The capital city of ...

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Chuvashia, Chuvashia - Geography, Chuvashia - Time zone, Chuvashia - Natural resources, Chuvashia - Climate, Chuvashia - Administrative divisions, Chuvashia - Demographics, Chuvashia - History, Chuvashia - Politics, Chuvashia - Economy, Chuvashia - Transportation, Chuvashia - Culture, Chuvashia - Education

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Much of Suffolk is low-lying on Eocene sand and clays. These rocks are relatively unresistant and on the coast are eroded rapidly. Coastal defences have been used to protect several towns, but several cliff-top houses have been lost to coastal erosion in the past. The west of the county lies on more resistant Cretaceous Chalk. This chalk is the north-eastern extreme of the Southern England Chalk Formation that stretches from Dorset in the south west to Dover in the south east. The Chalk is less easily eroded so forms the only signific ...

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Suffolk, Suffolk - History, Suffolk - Geology landscape and ecology, Suffolk - Demographics, Suffolk - Cities towns and villages, Suffolk - Places of interest, Suffolk - Notable people from Suffolk

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The agreed upon number of established communities in Suffolk varies greatly because of the large number of the all but non-existent hamlets which may consist of just a single farm and a deconsecrated church: remnants of wealthy communities, some dating back to the early days of the Christian era. Suffolk encompasses one of the most ancient regions of the UK: A monastery in Bury St. Edmunds founded in 630AD, plotting of the Magna Carta in 1215; the oldest documented structural element of ...

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Suffolk, Suffolk - History, Suffolk - Geology landscape and ecology, Suffolk - Demographics, Suffolk - Cities towns and villages, Suffolk - Places of interest, Suffolk - Notable people from Suffolk

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In 2002, Chuvashia had a total population of 1,346,300. 794,800 or 60.9 percent of the population were living in urban areas. 510,200 or 39.1 percent of the population were living in rural areas. The largest city is the capital, Cheboksary, followed by nearby Novocheboksarsk. Within Chuvashia, the Chuvash and Russian nationalities make up about 67 and 27 percent of the population, respectively, giving ...

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Chuvashia, Chuvashia - Geography, Chuvashia - Time zone, Chuvashia - Natural resources, Chuvashia - Climate, Chuvashia - Administrative divisions, Chuvashia - Demographics, Chuvashia - History, Chuvashia - Politics, Chuvashia - Economy, Chuvashia - Transportation, Chuvashia - Culture, Chuvashia - Education

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The republic has a fascinating cultural heritage, a result of the ethnic Chuvash presence in the region. While Russian is the predominant business language, the Chuvash language is still spoken by many, especially in the country. The Chuvash language belongs to the Bolgar subgroup of the Turkic language group. In ancient times a runic system of writing was used. Chuvashi now uses a modified Cyri ...

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Chuvashia, Chuvashia - Geography, Chuvashia - Time zone, Chuvashia - Natural resources, Chuvashia - Climate, Chuvashia - Administrative divisions, Chuvashia - Demographics, Chuvashia - History, Chuvashia - Politics, Chuvashia - Economy, Chuvashia - Transportation, Chuvashia - Culture, Chuvashia - Education

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Although the metal is reasonably abundant in the Earth's crust at a concentration estimated to be about 0.7 mg/kg, it exists mostly in association with potassium minerals in clays, soils, and granites and, thus, is not generally considered to be commercially recoverable from those forms. The major source of commercial thallium is the trace amounts found in copper, lead, zinc, and other sulfide ores. Thallium is found in the minerals crookesite (TlCu7Se4), hutchinsonite(TlPbAs5S9), and lorand ...

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Thallium, Thallium - Notable characteristics, Thallium - Applications, Thallium - History, Thallium - Occurrence, Thallium - Isotopes, Thallium - Precautions, Thallium - Famous uses

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The Chuvash ancestors were tribes of ancient Bulgars and Suars that resided in the Northern Caucasus in the 5th to the 8th centuries. In the 7th and 8th centuries one part of the Bulgars left for the Balkans, where they dissolved among the Slavs. Another part moved to the middle Volga region (see Volga Bulgaria), where they later formed the ethnic foundation for the Chuvash people. The Chuvash nationality was formed from the part of the Bulgar population that did not adopt Islam in the 10th century. During the Mongol invasion to Volga Bulgar ...

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Chuvashia, Chuvashia - Geography, Chuvashia - Time zone, Chuvashia - Natural resources, Chuvashia - Climate, Chuvashia - Administrative divisions, Chuvashia - Demographics, Chuvashia - History, Chuvashia - Politics, Chuvashia - Economy, Chuvashia - Transportation, Chuvashia - Culture, Chuvashia - Education

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The second major environment where sediment may be suspended in a fluid is in seas and oceans. The sediment could consist of terrigenous material supplied by nearby rivers and streams or reworked marine sediment (e.g. sand). In the mid-ocean, living organisms are primarily responsible for the sediment accumulation, their shells sinking to the ocean floor upon death. Marine environments also see the formation of bedforms, whose characterist ...

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Sediment, Sediment - Sediment transport, Sediment - Rivers and streams, Sediment - Shores and shallow seas

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The most prominent oxide of carbon is carbon dioxide, CO2. This is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere. In water it forms trace amounts of methanoic acid, HCO2H, but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. ...

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Carbon, Carbon - Notable characteristics, Carbon - Applications, Carbon - Other uses, Carbon - History and Etymology, Carbon - Allotropes, Carbon - Occurrence, Carbon - Organic compounds, Carbon - Carbon chains, Carbon - Carbon cycle, Carbon - Isotopes, Carbon - Precautions

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Originating from within the bactritoid nautiloids, Ammonites first appeared in the Late Silurian to Early Devonian (~400 million years ago) and became extinct at the close of the Cretaceous along with the dinosaurs (65 million years ago). The classification of ammonites is based in part on the ornamentation and structure of the septa comprising their shells' gas chambers; by these and other characteristics we can divide this subclass into three orders and eight known suborders. While nearly all nautiloids show gently curving sutures, the ammonite suture line (the intersection of the septum with the outer shell) was folded, forming ...

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Ammonite, Ammonite - Classification, Ammonite - Life, Ammonite - Shell anatomy and diversity, Ammonite - Basic shell anatomy, Ammonite - Sexual dimorphism, Ammonite - Variations in shape, Ammonite - The aptychus, Ammonite - Size, Ammonite - Ammonite distribution, Ammonite - Trivia, Ammonite - References and further reading

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Transportation, especially by sea, is an important segment of the economy. Nearly all the cargo arriving for Sakhalin (and the Kurile Islands) is delivered by cargo boats, or by ferries, in railway wagons, through a sea ferry passage at Vanino-Kholmsk. The ports of Korsakov and Kholmsk are the largest and handle all kinds of goods, while coal and timber shipments often go through other ports. In 1999, a ferry service was opened between ...

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Sakhalin, Sakhalin - History, Sakhalin - Geography, Sakhalin - Demographics, Sakhalin - Climate, Sakhalin - Flora and fauna, Sakhalin - Transportation, Sakhalin - Economy

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The allotropes of carbon are the different molecular configurations that pure carbon can take. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Several exotic allotropes have also been synthesized or discovered, including fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, lonsdaleite and aggregated diamond nanorods. In its amorphous form, carbon is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is, rather, present as a powder which is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal, la ...

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Carbon, Carbon - Notable characteristics, Carbon - Applications, Carbon - Other uses, Carbon - History and Etymology, Carbon - Allotropes, Carbon - Occurrence, Carbon - Organic compounds, Carbon - Carbon chains, Carbon - Carbon cycle, Carbon - Isotopes, Carbon - Precautions

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The whole of the island is covered with dense forests, mostly coniferous. The Yezo (or Yeddo) spruce (Picea jezoensis), the Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalinsis) and the Daurian larch (Larix gmelinii) are the chief trees; on the upper parts of the mountains are the Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila) and the Kurile bamboo (Arundinaria kurilei). Birches, both Siberian silver birch (Betula platyphylla) and Erman's birch (B. ermanii), poplar, elm, Bird cherry (Prunus padus), Japanese yew (Tax ...

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Sakhalin, Sakhalin - History, Sakhalin - Geography, Sakhalin - Demographics, Sakhalin - Climate, Sakhalin - Flora and fauna, Sakhalin - Transportation, Sakhalin - Economy

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Sakhalin is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Mamiya Strait or Strait of Tartary, which often freezes in winter in its narrower part, and from Hokkaido (Japan) by the Soya Strait or Strait of La Pérouse. Sakhalin is the largest island of the Russian Federation, being 948 km (589 miles) long, and 25 to 170 km (16 to 105 miles) wide, with an area of 78,000 km² (30,100 mi²). Its orography and geological structure are imperfectly known. Nearly two-thirds of Sakhalin is mountainous. Two parallel ranges of mountains t ...

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Sakhalin, Sakhalin - History, Sakhalin - Geography, Sakhalin - Demographics, Sakhalin - Climate, Sakhalin - Flora and fauna, Sakhalin - Transportation, Sakhalin - Economy

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At the beginning of the 20th century, some 32,000 Russians (of whom over 22,150 were convicts) inhabited Sakhalin along with several thousand native inhabitants. The island's population has grown to 673,100 today, 83 percent of whom are ethnic Russians and followed by Koreans at about 30,000 (5.5%). The native inhabitants consist of some 2,000 Nivkhs, 1,300 Ainus, 750 Orochons, 200 Evenks and some Yakuts. The Nivkhs in the north support themselves by fishing and hunting. The Ai ...

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Sakhalin, Sakhalin - History, Sakhalin - Geography, Sakhalin - Demographics, Sakhalin - Climate, Sakhalin - Flora and fauna, Sakhalin - Transportation, Sakhalin - Economy

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Sakhalin is a classic "resource economy" relying on oil and gas exports, coal mining, forestry, and fishing. There are also some coal deposits and limited quantities of rye, wheat, oats, barley and vegetables are grown, although the growing season averages less than 100 days. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and economic liberalization, Sakhalin has experienced an oil boom with extensive petroleum exploration and mining by most large oil multinationals. The oil and natural gas reserves contain an estimated 14 billion barrels (2.2 km³) of oil and 96 tril ...

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Sakhalin, Sakhalin - History, Sakhalin - Geography, Sakhalin - Demographics, Sakhalin - Climate, Sakhalin - Flora and fauna, Sakhalin - Transportation, Sakhalin - Economy

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Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Cedar Mountain and Dakota Sandstone. Early Cretaceous time brought continental deposition that was dominated by rivers to the area. Sandstones and mudstones accumulated to form the 0 to 166 foot (50.5 m) thick slope-forming Cedar Mountain Formation. The 73 foot (22 m) thick Buckhorn Conglomerate Member thins out north and east of the park and is nearly absent in it, making it difficult to distinguish the underlying Morrison from the somewhat more pastel-colored Cedar Mountain. F ...

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Geology of the Capitol Reef area, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Permian events, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Cutler Group, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Kaibab Limestone, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Triassic events, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Moenkopi Formation, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Chinle Formation, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Jurassic events, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Glen Canyon Group, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - San Rafael Group, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Morrison Formation, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Cretaceous events, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Cedar Mountain and Dakota Sandstone, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Mancos Shale, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Mesaverde Formation, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Uplift and Cenozoic events, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Waterpocket Fold and Lake Uinta, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Volcanism, Geology of the Capitol Reef area - Erosion

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Trenches are centerpieces of the distinctive physiography of a convergent plate margin. Transects across trenches yield asymmetric profiles, with relatively gentle (~5°) outer (seaward) slope and a steeper (~10-16°) inner (landward) slope. This asymmetry is due to the fact that the outer slope is defined by the top of the downgoing plate, which must bend as it starts its descent. The great thickness of the lithosphere requires that this bending be gentle. As the subducting plate approaches the trench, it is first bent upwards to form the o ...

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Oceanic trench, Oceanic trench - Geographic distribution, Oceanic trench - History of the term trench, Oceanic trench - Modern understanding of trenches, Oceanic trench - Morphologic expression, Oceanic trench - Filled trenches, Oceanic trench - Accretionary prisms and sediment transport, Oceanic trench - Water and biosphere, Oceanic trench - Empty trenches and subduction erosion, Oceanic trench - Controls on trench depth, Oceanic trench - Major oceanic trenches

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The composition of the inner trench slope and a first-order control on trench morphology is determined by sediment supply. Active accretionary prisms are common for trenches near continents where large rivers or glaciers reach the sea and supply great volumes of sediment which naturally flow to the trench. These filled trenches are confusing because in a plate tectonic sense they are indistinguishable from other convergent margins but lack the bathymetric expression of a trench. The Cascadia margin of the northwest USA is a filled trench, th ...

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Oceanic trench, Oceanic trench - Geographic distribution, Oceanic trench - History of the term trench, Oceanic trench - Modern understanding of trenches, Oceanic trench - Morphologic expression, Oceanic trench - Filled trenches, Oceanic trench - Accretionary prisms and sediment transport, Oceanic trench - Water and biosphere, Oceanic trench - Empty trenches and subduction erosion, Oceanic trench - Controls on trench depth, Oceanic trench - Major oceanic trenches

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The volume of water escaping from within and beneath the forearc results in some of Earth’s most dynamic and complex interactions between aqueous fluids and rocks. Most of this water is trapped in pores and fractures in the upper lithosphere and sediments of the subducting plate. The average forearc is underrun by a solid volume of oceanic sediment that is 400 m thick. This sediment enters the trench with 50-60% porosity. These sediments are progressively squeezed as they are subducted, reducing void space and forcing fluids out along the ...

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Oceanic trench, Oceanic trench - Geographic distribution, Oceanic trench - History of the term trench, Oceanic trench - Modern understanding of trenches, Oceanic trench - Morphologic expression, Oceanic trench - Filled trenches, Oceanic trench - Accretionary prisms and sediment transport, Oceanic trench - Water and biosphere, Oceanic trench - Empty trenches and subduction erosion, Oceanic trench - Controls on trench depth, Oceanic trench - Major oceanic trenches

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