Caracalla

In CE 406 Alaric destroyed the city, and at a later period Laconia was invaded and settled by Slavonic tribes, especially the Melings and Ezerits, who in turn had to give way before the advance of the Byzantine power, though preserving a partial independence in the mountainous regions. In fact, Slavic tribes were found in the Peloponnese until well into Ottoman times. It has been theorized that speakers of the now-moribund Doric derived language of Tsakonian are the descen ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Nonetheless, a vigorous struggle was maintained with the Achaean League and with Macedon until the Romans, after the conclusion of their war with Philip V, sent an army into Laconia under T. Quinctius Flamininus. Nabis was forced to capitulate, evacuating all his possessions outside Laconia, surrendering the Laconian seaports and his navy, and paying an indemnity of 500 talents (Livy xxxiv. 33–43). On the departure of the Romans he succeeded in recovering Gythium, in spite of an attempt to relieve it made by the Achaeans under Philopoemen, but in an encounter he suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of th ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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We cannot trace in detail the process by which Sparta subjugated the whole of Laconia, but apparently the first step, taken in the reign of Archelaus and Charillus, was to secure the upper Eurotas valley, conquering the border territory of Aegys. Archelaus' son Teleclus is said to have taken Amyclae, Pharis and Geronthrae, thus mastering the central Laconian plain and the eastern plateau which lies between the Eurotas and Mount Parnon: his son, Alcamenes, by the subjugation ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Tradition relates that Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, son of Zeus and Taygete, who called the city after his wife, the daughter of Eurotas. But Amyclae and Therapne (Therapnae) seem to have been in early times of greater importance than Sparta, the former a Minoan foundation a few miles to the south of Sparta, the latter probably the Achaean capital of Laconia and the seat of Menelaus, Agamemnon's younger brother. Eighty years after the Trojan War, according to the traditional chronology, the Dorian migration took place. A band of Dorians united with a body of Aetolians to cross the Corint ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Early in the 6th century the Spartan kings Leon and Agasicles made a vigorous attack on Tegea, the most powerful of the Arcadian cities, but it was not until the reign of Anaxandridas and Ariston, about the middle of the century, that the attack was successful and Tegea was forced to acknowledge Spartan overlordship, though retaining its independence. The final struggle for Peloponnesian supremacy was with Argos, which had at an early period been the most powerful state of the peninsula and, even though its ter ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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The fall of Athens left Sparta once again supreme in the Greek world and demonstrated clearly its total unfitness for rule. Everywhere democracy was replaced by a philo-Laconian oligarchy, usually consisting of ten men under a harmost or governor pledged to Spartan interests, and even in Laconia itself the narrow and selfish character of the Spartan rule led to a serious conspiracy. For a short time, indeed, under the energetic rule of Agesilaus, it seemed as if Sparta would pursue a Hellenic policy and carry on the war against Persia. But troubles soon broke out in Greece, Agesilaus II was recalled from Asia Mino ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Twenty-two years later the city was attacked by an immense force under Pyrrhus, but Spartan bravery had not died out and the formidable enemy was repulsed, even the women taking part in the defence of the city. About 244 BCE an Aetolian army overran Laconia, working irreparable harm and carrying off, it is said, 50,000 captives. But the social evils within the state were even harder to combat than foes without. Avarice, luxury, and the glaring inequality in the distribution of wealth threatened to bring about the speedy fall of the st ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Ancient Rome - Monarchy. Main article: Roman Kingdom The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the 9th century BC by members of two central Italian tribes, the Latins and the Sabines, on the Palatine and Quirinal Hills. The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in t ...

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Ancient Rome, Ancient Rome - History, Ancient Rome - Monarchy, Ancient Rome - Republic, Ancient Rome - Empire, Ancient Rome - Society, Ancient Rome - Government, Ancient Rome - Law, Ancient Rome - Economy, Ancient Rome - Class structure, Ancient Rome - Family, Ancient Rome - Education, Ancient Rome - Culture, Ancient Rome - Language, Ancient Rome - Art literature and music, Ancient Rome - Games and activities, Ancient Rome - Religion, Ancient Rome - Technology, Ancient Rome - Engineering and architecture, Ancient Rome - Military, Ancient Rome - Notes

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In the second century A.D., Lugdunum prospered and grew to a population of 40 to 50,000 persons. Four aqueducts brought water to the city's fountains, public baths, and wealthy homes. It continued to be a provincial capital with additional government functions and services such as the mint and customs service. Lugdunum had at least two banks and became the principal manufacturing center for pottery, metal working, and weaving in Gaul. Lyonnais terra cotta pott ...

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Lugdunum, Lugdunum - Name, Lugdunum - Pre-Roman settlements and the area before the founding of the city, Lugdunum - Founding of the Roman city, Lugdunum - Attention from the Emperors, Lugdunum - Growth and prosperity in the first centuries of the Empire, Lugdunum - Christianity and the first martyrs, Lugdunum - The Battle of Lugdunum, Lugdunum - Decline of Lugdunum and the Empire, Lugdunum - Sources and references

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The term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach (Hebrew, "liturgical tradition") used by Ashkenazi Jews in their Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. This phrase is often used in contrast with Sephardi Jews, also called Sephardim, who are descendants of Jews from Spain and Portugal. There are some differences in ...

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Ashkenazi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Origin of Ashkenazim, Ashkenazi Jews - From Roman Empire to Dark Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Possible DNA Clues, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Migrations throughout the High and Late Middle Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Usage of the name, Ashkenazi Jews - Medieval references, Ashkenazi Jews - Customs laws and traditions, Ashkenazi Jews - Relationship to other Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Population genetics, Ashkenazi Jews - Specific diseases, Ashkenazi Jews - IQ, Ashkenazi Jews - Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence, Ashkenazi Jews - Modern history, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Jewry and the Holocaust, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis in the Yishuv and Israel

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Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and 9th Century. (Cochran et. al., p.11) By the early 900s, Jewish populations were well-established in Northern Europe, and later followed the Norman Conquest into England in 1066, also settling in the Rhineland. With the onset of the Crusades, and the expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (1400s), Jewish migration pushed eastward into Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. Over this period of several hundred years ...

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Ashkenazi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Origin of Ashkenazim, Ashkenazi Jews - From Roman Empire to Dark Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Possible DNA Clues, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Migrations throughout the High and Late Middle Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Usage of the name, Ashkenazi Jews - Medieval references, Ashkenazi Jews - Customs laws and traditions, Ashkenazi Jews - Relationship to other Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Population genetics, Ashkenazi Jews - Specific diseases, Ashkenazi Jews - IQ, Ashkenazi Jews - Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence, Ashkenazi Jews - Modern history, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Jewry and the Holocaust, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis in the Yishuv and Israel

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Ashkenazi Jews - Specific diseases. The Ashkenazi Jewish population has, like many other endogamous populations, a higher incidence of specific hereditary diseases. Genetic counseling and genetic testing are recommended for couples where both partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notably Dor Yeshorim, organize screening programs to prevent homozygosity for the genes that cause these diseases. A large number of these diseases are neurological. See Jewish Genet ...

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Ashkenazi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Origin of Ashkenazim, Ashkenazi Jews - From Roman Empire to Dark Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Possible DNA Clues, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Migrations throughout the High and Late Middle Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Usage of the name, Ashkenazi Jews - Medieval references, Ashkenazi Jews - Customs laws and traditions, Ashkenazi Jews - Relationship to other Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Population genetics, Ashkenazi Jews - Specific diseases, Ashkenazi Jews - IQ, Ashkenazi Jews - Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence, Ashkenazi Jews - Modern history, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Jewry and the Holocaust, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis in the Yishuv and Israel

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In an essay on Sephardic Jewry, Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [13] summarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years, noting that at the end of the 11th Century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazic; in the mid-seventeenth century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two," but by the end of the 18th Century "Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe as against the Muslim world." [14] By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews acc ...

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Ashkenazi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Origin of Ashkenazim, Ashkenazi Jews - From Roman Empire to Dark Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Possible DNA Clues, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Migrations throughout the High and Late Middle Ages, Ashkenazi Jews - Usage of the name, Ashkenazi Jews - Medieval references, Ashkenazi Jews - Customs laws and traditions, Ashkenazi Jews - Relationship to other Jews, Ashkenazi Jews - Population genetics, Ashkenazi Jews - Specific diseases, Ashkenazi Jews - IQ, Ashkenazi Jews - Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence, Ashkenazi Jews - Modern history, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Jewry and the Holocaust, Ashkenazi Jews - Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis in the Yishuv and Israel

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Main article: Names of the Greeks The name Byzantine Empire is derived from the original Greek name for Constantinople; Byzantium. The name is a modern term and would have been alien to its contemporaries. The Empire's native Greek name was Ῥωμανία Romanía or Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων Basileía Romaíon, a direct translation of the Latin name of the Roman Empire, See also:

Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

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The early Roman army was, like those of other contemporary city-states, a citizen force in which the bulk of the troops fought as hoplites. The soldiers were required to supply their own arms and they returned to civilian life once their service was ended. The first of the great army reformers, Camillus, reorganized the army to adopt manipular tactics and divided the infantry into three lines: hastati< ...

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Ancient Rome, Ancient Rome - History, Ancient Rome - Monarchy, Ancient Rome - Republic, Ancient Rome - Empire, Ancient Rome - Society, Ancient Rome - Government, Ancient Rome - Law, Ancient Rome - Economy, Ancient Rome - Class structure, Ancient Rome - Family, Ancient Rome - Education, Ancient Rome - Culture, Ancient Rome - Language, Ancient Rome - Art literature and music, Ancient Rome - Games and activities, Ancient Rome - Religion, Ancient Rome - Technology, Ancient Rome - Engineering and architecture, Ancient Rome - Military, Ancient Rome - Notes

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Ancient Rome boasted the most impressive technological feats of its day, utilizing many advancements that would be lost in the Middle Ages and not be rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. However, though adept at adopting and synthesizing other cultures' technologies, the Roman civilization was not especially innovative or progressive. The development of new ideas was rarely encouraged; Roman society considered the articulate soldier who could wisely govern a large household the ideal, and Roman law made no provisions for intellec ...

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Ancient Rome, Ancient Rome - History, Ancient Rome - Monarchy, Ancient Rome - Republic, Ancient Rome - Empire, Ancient Rome - Society, Ancient Rome - Government, Ancient Rome - Law, Ancient Rome - Economy, Ancient Rome - Class structure, Ancient Rome - Family, Ancient Rome - Education, Ancient Rome - Culture, Ancient Rome - Language, Ancient Rome - Art literature and music, Ancient Rome - Games and activities, Ancient Rome - Religion, Ancient Rome - Technology, Ancient Rome - Engineering and architecture, Ancient Rome - Military, Ancient Rome - Notes

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When the Emperor Macrinus came to power he exiled Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson, Elagabalus, to her estate at Emesa in Syria. She began a plot, with her eunuch advisor and Elagabalus' tutor Gannys, to overthrow Macrinus almost upon arrival in Syria. She decided to elevate the fourteen year old Elagabalus as emperor. Elagabalus and his mother readily complied and announced, falsely, that he was the illegitimate son of Caracalla. After Julia Maesa displayed her wealth to the III Gallica at Raphaneae they swore ...

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Elagabalus, Elagabalus - Family, Elagabalus - Rise to power, Elagabalus - Imperial power, Elagabalus - Religious controversy, Elagabalus - Sex/gender controversy, Elagabalus - Fall from power, Elagabalus - After death, Elagabalus - Biased historical sources, Elagabalus - Cultural influence, Elagabalus - Note

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Elagabalus - Biased historical sources. After his death, Elagabalus' religious edicts were reversed and El-Gabal was returned to Emesa. Women were barred from ever attending meetings of the Senate, and a policy of damnatio memoriae — condemning a person by erasing him or her from recorded existence — was instituted. A black propaganda campaign against Elagabalus, traditionally attributed to Julia Avitus Mamaea, was also instituted. Many denigrating and false stories were circulated about him, and his e ...

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Elagabalus, Elagabalus - Family, Elagabalus - Rise to power, Elagabalus - Imperial power, Elagabalus - Religious controversy, Elagabalus - Sex/gender controversy, Elagabalus - Fall from power, Elagabalus - After death, Elagabalus - Biased historical sources, Elagabalus - Cultural influence, Elagabalus - Note

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Ancient Rome - Monarchy. The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the 9th century BC by members of two central Italian tribes, the Latins and the Sabines, on the Palatine and Quirinal Hills. The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC. The Etruscans app ...

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Ancient Rome, Ancient Rome - History, Ancient Rome - Monarchy, Ancient Rome - Republic, Ancient Rome - Empire, Ancient Rome - Society, Ancient Rome - Government, Ancient Rome - Law, Ancient Rome - Economy, Ancient Rome - Class structure, Ancient Rome - Family, Ancient Rome - Education, Ancient Rome - Culture, Ancient Rome - Language, Ancient Rome - Art literature and music, Ancient Rome - Games and activities, Ancient Rome - Religion, Ancient Rome - Technology, Ancient Rome - Engineering and architecture, Ancient Rome - Military, Ancient Rome - Notes

Read more here: » Ancient Rome: Encyclopedia II - Ancient Rome - History

Ancient Rome - Language. The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language that relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is ultimately based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and voca ...

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Ancient Rome, Ancient Rome - History, Ancient Rome - Monarchy, Ancient Rome - Republic, Ancient Rome - Empire, Ancient Rome - Society, Ancient Rome - Government, Ancient Rome - Law, Ancient Rome - Economy, Ancient Rome - Class structure, Ancient Rome - Family, Ancient Rome - Education, Ancient Rome - Culture, Ancient Rome - Language, Ancient Rome - Art literature and music, Ancient Rome - Games and activities, Ancient Rome - Religion, Ancient Rome - Technology, Ancient Rome - Engineering and architecture, Ancient Rome - Military, Ancient Rome - Notes

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"Byzantium may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire, soon comprised the Hellenized empire of the East and ended its thousand year history, in 1453, as a Greek Orthodox state: An empire that became a nation, almost by the modern meaning of the word".1 In the centuries following the Arab and Lombard conquests in the 7th century, its multi-ethnic (albeit not multi-national) nature remained even though its constituent parts in the Balkans and Asia Minor contained an overwhelmingly large Greek p ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

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Caracalla's decree in 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana, extended citizenship outside of Italy to all free adult males in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of Rome itself. The importance of this decree is historical rather than political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied around the entire Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all of Italy. Of course, integration did not take place uniformly. ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Origin