It is generally agreed that—if designed incorrectly—the FBR poses a greater risk of proliferation of nuclear weapons than light water-moderated reactors. Water-moderated reactors must shutdown and refuel every four months or less to produce weapons grade plutonium, relatively pure Pu-239, because the level of Pu-240 in the fuel increases over time. Pu-240 undergoes spontaneous fission at a relatively high rate and is unsuitable for nuclear weapons production. An FBR can more easily produce weapons grade material, depending on its design. ...

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Fast breeder, Fast breeder - Technical, Fast breeder - FBR generating plants, Fast breeder - Future plants, Fast breeder - Economics, Fast breeder - Proliferation, Fast breeder - Associated reactor types

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Various other nuclear fuel forms find use in specific applications, but lack the widespread use of those found in BWRs, PWRs, and CANDU power plants. Many of these fuel forms are only found in research reactors, or have military applications. Nuclear fuel - RBMK fuel. RBMK reactor fuel was used in soviet designed and built RBMK type reactors. Nuclear fuel - TRISO fuel compact. Tri-isotropic (TRISO) fuels were originally developed in Germany for high-temperature gas-coole ...

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Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Production of common nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Common chemical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - UOX, Nuclear fuel - MOX, Nuclear fuel - Spent fuel, Nuclear fuel - Common physical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - PWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - BWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - CANDU fuel, Nuclear fuel - Less common nuclear fuel forms, Nuclear fuel - RBMK fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRISO fuel compact, Nuclear fuel - CerMet fuel, Nuclear fuel - Plate type fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRIGA fuel, Nuclear fuel - Rarely used nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Radioisotope Heating Units, Nuclear fuel - Liquid fuels, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Nitride, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Carbide, Nuclear fuel - Theoretically possible nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Fusion fuels

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For use as nuclear fuel, enriched UF6 is converted into uranium dioxide (UO2) powder that is then processed into pellet form. The pellets are then fired in a high-temperature, sintering furnace to create hard, ceramic pellets of enriched uranium. The cylindrical pellets then undergo a grinding process to achieve a uniform pellet size. The pellets are stacked, according to each nuclear core's design specifications, into tubes of corrosion-resistant metal alloy. The tubes are sealed to contain the fuel pellets: these tube ...

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Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Production of common nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Common chemical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - UOX, Nuclear fuel - MOX, Nuclear fuel - Spent fuel, Nuclear fuel - Common physical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - PWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - BWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - CANDU fuel, Nuclear fuel - Less common nuclear fuel forms, Nuclear fuel - RBMK fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRISO fuel compact, Nuclear fuel - CerMet fuel, Nuclear fuel - Plate type fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRIGA fuel, Nuclear fuel - Rarely used nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Radioisotope Heating Units, Nuclear fuel - Liquid fuels, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Nitride, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Carbide, Nuclear fuel - Theoretically possible nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Fusion fuels

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1 Uranium ore - the principal raw material of nuclear fuel 2 Yellowcake - the form in which uranium is transported to an enrichment plant 3 UF6 - used in enrichment 4 Nuclear fuel - a compact, inert, insoluble solid Traditional nuclear fuel used in the US and other countries that do not reprocess used nuclear fuel follow the four steps shown in the above figure. It is based on a uranium fuel cycle. First, the uranium is mined from the ground. Second, the fuel is processed ...

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Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Production of common nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Common chemical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - UOX, Nuclear fuel - MOX, Nuclear fuel - Spent fuel, Nuclear fuel - Common physical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - PWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - BWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - CANDU fuel, Nuclear fuel - Less common nuclear fuel forms, Nuclear fuel - RBMK fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRISO fuel compact, Nuclear fuel - CerMet fuel, Nuclear fuel - Plate type fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRIGA fuel, Nuclear fuel - Rarely used nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Radioisotope Heating Units, Nuclear fuel - Liquid fuels, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Nitride, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Carbide, Nuclear fuel - Theoretically possible nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Fusion fuels

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The first step is separating the plutonium from the remaining uranium (about 96% of the spent fuel) and the fission products with other wastes (together about 3%). This is undertaken at a reprocessing plant. The plutonium, as an oxide, is then mixed with depleted uranium left over from an enrichment plant to form fresh mixed oxide fuel (MOX, which is UO2+PuO2). MOX fuel, consisting of 7% plutonium mixed with depleted uranium, is equivalent to uranium oxide fuel enriched to about 4.5% U-235, assuming that the plutonium has about 60- 65% Pu-239. If weapons plutonium were used (>90% Pu-239), only about ...

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MOX fuel, MOX fuel - Overview, MOX fuel - Current applications, MOX fuel - Fabrication, MOX fuel - Reference

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These fuels consist of nuclear fuels that where used at one time for proof of principle studies, or are occasionally used for space applications. Nuclear fuel - Radioisotope Heating Units. Main articles: Radioisotope heater units, and [[{{{2}}}]], and See also:

Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Production of common nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Common chemical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - UOX, Nuclear fuel - MOX, Nuclear fuel - Spent fuel, Nuclear fuel - Common physical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - PWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - BWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - CANDU fuel, Nuclear fuel - Less common nuclear fuel forms, Nuclear fuel - RBMK fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRISO fuel compact, Nuclear fuel - CerMet fuel, Nuclear fuel - Plate type fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRIGA fuel, Nuclear fuel - Rarely used nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Radioisotope Heating Units, Nuclear fuel - Liquid fuels, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Nitride, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Carbide, Nuclear fuel - Theoretically possible nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Fusion fuels

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Nuclear fuel - Fusion fuels. Most fusion fuels fit in here. They include tritium (3H) and deuterium (2H) as well as helium three (3He). Many other elements can be fused together if they can be forced close enough to each other at high enough temperatures. In general, fusion fuels are expected to have at least three generations based on the ease of fusing light atomic nuclei together. Deuterium and tritium are both considered first-generation fusion fuels; with three permutations in which they can be fused together. See also:

Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Production of common nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Common chemical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - UOX, Nuclear fuel - MOX, Nuclear fuel - Spent fuel, Nuclear fuel - Common physical forms of nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - PWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - BWR fuel, Nuclear fuel - CANDU fuel, Nuclear fuel - Less common nuclear fuel forms, Nuclear fuel - RBMK fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRISO fuel compact, Nuclear fuel - CerMet fuel, Nuclear fuel - Plate type fuel, Nuclear fuel - TRIGA fuel, Nuclear fuel - Rarely used nuclear fuel, Nuclear fuel - Radioisotope Heating Units, Nuclear fuel - Liquid fuels, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Nitride, Nuclear fuel - Uranium Carbide, Nuclear fuel - Theoretically possible nuclear fuels, Nuclear fuel - Fusion fuels

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In 2005, there were 441 commercial nuclear generating units throughout the world, with a total capacity of about 368 gigawatts.[6] 111 reactors (36GW) have been shut down.[7] 80% of reactors (and of generating capacity) are more than 15 years old.[8] In 2004 in the United States, there were 104 (69 pressurized water reactors and 35 boiling water reactors) commercial nuclear generating units licensed to operate, producing a total of 97,400 megawatts (electric), which is approximately 20 percent of the nation's total electric energy con ...

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Nuclear power, Nuclear power - History, Nuclear power - Origins, Nuclear power - Early years, Nuclear power - Development, Nuclear power - Current and planned use, Nuclear power - Reactor Types, Nuclear power - Current Technology, Nuclear power - Experimental Technologies, Nuclear power - Life cycle, Nuclear power - Fuel resources, Nuclear power - Reprocessing, Nuclear power - Solid waste, Nuclear power - Economy, Nuclear power - Capital costs, Nuclear power - Operating costs, Nuclear power - Subsidies, Nuclear power - Other economic issues, Nuclear power - Risks, Nuclear power - Accident or attack, Nuclear power - Air pollution, Nuclear power - Waste heat in water systems, Nuclear power - Health effect on population near nuclear plants, Nuclear power - Nuclear proliferation, Nuclear power - List of atomic energy groups

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Nuclear power - Origins. The first successful experiment with nuclear fission was conducted in 1938 in Berlin by the German physicists Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassman. During the Second World War, a number of nations embarked on crash programs to develop nuclear energy, focusing first on the development of nuclear reactors. The first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was obtained by Enrico Fermi on December 2nd,1942, and reactors based on his research were used to produce the plutonium nec ...

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Nuclear power, Nuclear power - History, Nuclear power - Origins, Nuclear power - Early years, Nuclear power - Development, Nuclear power - Current and planned use, Nuclear power - Reactor Types, Nuclear power - Current Technology, Nuclear power - Experimental Technologies, Nuclear power - Life cycle, Nuclear power - Fuel resources, Nuclear power - Reprocessing, Nuclear power - Solid waste, Nuclear power - Economy, Nuclear power - Capital costs, Nuclear power - Operating costs, Nuclear power - Subsidies, Nuclear power - Other economic issues, Nuclear power - Risks, Nuclear power - Accident or attack, Nuclear power - Air pollution, Nuclear power - Waste heat in water systems, Nuclear power - Health effect on population near nuclear plants, Nuclear power - Nuclear proliferation, Nuclear power - List of atomic energy groups

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Nuclear fuel cycle - Interim Storage. After its operating cycle, the reactor is shut down for refueling. The fuel discharged at that time (spent fuel) is stored either at the reactor site or, potentially, in a common facility away from reactor sites. If on-site pool storage capacity is exceeded, it may be desirable to store aged fuel in modular dry storage facilities known as Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSI) at the reactor site or at a facility away from the site. The spent fuel rods are usual ...

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Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear fuel cycle - Front end, Nuclear fuel cycle - Exploration, Nuclear fuel cycle - Mining, Nuclear fuel cycle - Milling, Nuclear fuel cycle - Uranium conversion, Nuclear fuel cycle - Enrichment, Nuclear fuel cycle - Fabrication, Nuclear fuel cycle - Service period, Nuclear fuel cycle - Transport of Radioactive Materials, Nuclear fuel cycle - In-core fuel management, Nuclear fuel cycle - On-Load Reactors, Nuclear fuel cycle - Back end, Nuclear fuel cycle - Interim Storage, Nuclear fuel cycle - Reprocessing, Nuclear fuel cycle - Waste disposal

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Nuclear fuel cycle - Transport of Radioactive Materials. Transport is an integral part of the nuclear fuel cycle. There are nuclear power reactors in operation in several countries but uranium mining is viable in only a few areas. Also, in the course of over forty years of operation by the nuclear industry, a number of specialized facilities have been developed in various locations around the world to provide fuel cycle services and there is a need to transport nuclear materials to and from these facilities. Most ...

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Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear fuel cycle - Front end, Nuclear fuel cycle - Exploration, Nuclear fuel cycle - Mining, Nuclear fuel cycle - Milling, Nuclear fuel cycle - Uranium conversion, Nuclear fuel cycle - Enrichment, Nuclear fuel cycle - Fabrication, Nuclear fuel cycle - Service period, Nuclear fuel cycle - Transport of Radioactive Materials, Nuclear fuel cycle - In-core fuel management, Nuclear fuel cycle - On-Load Reactors, Nuclear fuel cycle - Back end, Nuclear fuel cycle - Interim Storage, Nuclear fuel cycle - Reprocessing, Nuclear fuel cycle - Waste disposal

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Reprocessing of commercial nuclear fuel to make MOX is done in England and France, and to a lesser extent in Russia, India and Japan. China plans to develop fast breeder reactors and reprocessing. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is not permitted in the United States due to nonproliferation considerations. (All of these nations have long had nuclear weapons from military-focused research reactor ...

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MOX fuel, MOX fuel - Overview, MOX fuel - Current applications, MOX fuel - Fabrication, MOX fuel - Reference

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Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of 5 stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd, 157Gd and 158Gd, and 2 radioisotopes, 152Gd and 160Gd, with 158Gd being the most abundant (24.84% natural abundance). 30 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 160Gd with a half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years (the decay is not observed, only the lower limit on the half-life is known), alpha-decaying 152Gd with ...

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Gadolinium, Gadolinium - Notable characteristics, Gadolinium - Applications, Gadolinium - History, Gadolinium - Biological role, Gadolinium - Occurrence, Gadolinium - Compounds, Gadolinium - Isotopes, Gadolinium - Precautions

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Some experts predict that electricity shortages, fossil fuel price increases and concern over Greenhouse gas emissions will renew the demand for nuclear power plants. Watts Bar 1, which came on-line in 1997, was the last U.S. commercial nuclear reactor to go on-line. As of 2004, the immediate future of the industry in many countries still appeared uncertain, the most notable exceptions being Japan, China and India, all actively developing both fast and thermal technology, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technolog ...

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Nuclear reactor, Nuclear reactor - Applications, Nuclear reactor - History, Nuclear reactor - The future of the industry, Nuclear reactor - Method of operation, Nuclear reactor - Reactor design, Nuclear reactor - Safety, Nuclear reactor - Types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Current families of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Obsolescent types still in service, Nuclear reactor - Other types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Advanced reactors, Nuclear reactor - Generation IV reactors, Nuclear reactor - Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear reactor - Fueling of nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Waste management, Nuclear reactor - Natural nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Related articles, Nuclear reactor - References and links

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Enrico Fermi and Leó Szilárd, while both were at the University of Chicago, were the first to build a nuclear pile and demonstrate a controlled chain reaction on December 2, 1942. In 1955 they shared US patent number 2,708,656 for the nuclear reactor. The first nuclear reactors were used to generate plutonium for nuclear weapons. Additional reactors were used in the navy (see United States Naval reactor) to propel submarines and aircraft carriers. In the mid-1950s, both the Soviet Union and western countries were expanding their nuc ...

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Nuclear reactor, Nuclear reactor - Applications, Nuclear reactor - History, Nuclear reactor - The future of the industry, Nuclear reactor - Method of operation, Nuclear reactor - Reactor design, Nuclear reactor - Safety, Nuclear reactor - Types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Current families of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Obsolescent types still in service, Nuclear reactor - Other types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Advanced reactors, Nuclear reactor - Generation IV reactors, Nuclear reactor - Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear reactor - Fueling of nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Waste management, Nuclear reactor - Natural nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Related articles, Nuclear reactor - References and links

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One design of fast neutron reactor, specifically designed to address the waste disposal and plutonium issues, was the Integral Fast Reactor (a.k.a. Integral Fast Breeder Reactor, although the original reactor was designed to not breed a net surplus of fissile material) [2] [3]. To solve the waste disposal problem, the IFR had an on-site electrowinning fuel reprocessing unit that recycled the uranium and all the transuranics (not just plutonium) via electroplating, leaving just short half-life fission products in the wast ...

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Fast breeder, Fast breeder - Technical, Fast breeder - FBR generating plants, Fast breeder - Future plants, Fast breeder - Economics, Fast breeder - Proliferation, Fast breeder - Associated reactor types

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It is generally agreed that—if designed incorrectly—the FBR poses a greater risk of proliferation of nuclear weapons than the PWR. Unlike a PWR, an FBR can in theory produce weapons grade material. However, to date all known weapons programs have used far more easily built thermal reactors to produce plutonium, and there are some designs such as the SSTAR which avoid proliferation risks by both producing low amounts of plutonium at any given time from the U-238, and by producing three different isotopes of plutonium (Pu-239, Pu-240, and ...

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Fast breeder, Fast breeder - Technical, Fast breeder - FBR generating plants, Fast breeder - Future plants, Fast breeder - Economics, Fast breeder - Proliferation, Fast breeder - Associated reactor types

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A number of reactor technologies have been developed. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that are used to sustain the fission chain reaction. Thermal (slow) reactors use slow or thermal neutrons. These are characterised by having moderating materials which are intended to slow the neutrons until they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, that is, until they are thermalised. Thermal neutrons have a far higher probability of fi ...

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Nuclear reactor, Nuclear reactor - Applications, Nuclear reactor - History, Nuclear reactor - The future of the industry, Nuclear reactor - Method of operation, Nuclear reactor - Reactor design, Nuclear reactor - Safety, Nuclear reactor - Types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Current families of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Obsolescent types still in service, Nuclear reactor - Other types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Advanced reactors, Nuclear reactor - Generation IV reactors, Nuclear reactor - Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear reactor - Fueling of nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Waste management, Nuclear reactor - Natural nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Related articles, Nuclear reactor - References and links

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Main article: nuclear fuel cycle Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and enriched uranium. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see MOX). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly reprocessed and disposed of is known as the nuclear fuel cycle. Uranium is sampled and mined as other metals are, via open-pit mining or leach mining. Raw uranium ore found in the United States ranges from 0.05% to 0.3% uranium oxide. Uranium ore is not rare; th ...

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Nuclear reactor, Nuclear reactor - Applications, Nuclear reactor - History, Nuclear reactor - The future of the industry, Nuclear reactor - Method of operation, Nuclear reactor - Reactor design, Nuclear reactor - Safety, Nuclear reactor - Types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Current families of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Obsolescent types still in service, Nuclear reactor - Other types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Advanced reactors, Nuclear reactor - Generation IV reactors, Nuclear reactor - Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear reactor - Fueling of nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Waste management, Nuclear reactor - Natural nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Related articles, Nuclear reactor - References and links

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In 1880, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed spectroscopic lines due to gadolinium in samples of didymium and gadolinite; French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran separated gadolinia, the oxide of Gadolinium, from Mosander's yttria in 1886. The element itself was isolated only recently. Gadolinium, like the mineral gadolinite, is named after Finnish chemist and geologist Johan Gadolin. ...

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Gadolinium, Gadolinium - Notable characteristics, Gadolinium - Applications, Gadolinium - History, Gadolinium - Biological role, Gadolinium - Occurrence, Gadolinium - Compounds, Gadolinium - Isotopes, Gadolinium - Precautions

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Gadolinium is used for making gadolinium yttrium garnets, which have microwave applications, and gadolinium compounds are used for making phosphors for colour TV tubes. Gadolinium is also used for manufacturing compact discs and computer memory. Gadolinium is used in nuclear marine propulsion systems as a burnable poison. The gadolinium slows the initial reaction rate, but as it decays other neutron poisons accumulate, allowing for long-running cores. Gadolinium is also used as a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclea ...

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Gadolinium, Gadolinium - Notable characteristics, Gadolinium - Applications, Gadolinium - History, Gadolinium - Biological role, Gadolinium - Occurrence, Gadolinium - Compounds, Gadolinium - Isotopes, Gadolinium - Precautions

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A natural nuclear fission reactor can occur under certain circumstances that mimic the conditions in a constructed reactor. The only known natural nuclear reactor formed 2 billion years ago in Oklo, Gabon, Africa. [20] Such reactors can no longer form on Earth: radioactive decay over this immense time span has reduced the proportion of U-235 in naturally occurring uranium to below the amount required to sustain a chain reaction. The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater t ...

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Nuclear reactor, Nuclear reactor - Applications, Nuclear reactor - History, Nuclear reactor - The future of the industry, Nuclear reactor - Method of operation, Nuclear reactor - Reactor design, Nuclear reactor - Safety, Nuclear reactor - Types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Current families of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Obsolescent types still in service, Nuclear reactor - Other types of reactors, Nuclear reactor - Advanced reactors, Nuclear reactor - Generation IV reactors, Nuclear reactor - Nuclear fuel cycle, Nuclear reactor - Fueling of nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Waste management, Nuclear reactor - Natural nuclear reactors, Nuclear reactor - Related articles, Nuclear reactor - References and links

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