Bohdan Khmelnytsky

Boyars were hereditary nobles of three categories: 1) Rurikid princes of Upper Oka towns, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, etc. that lived in Moscow after their hereditary principalities had been incorporated into Muscovy (e.g., Shuisky, Vorotynsky, Repnin, Romodanovsky); 2) foreign princes from Lithuania and Golden Horde, claiming descent either from Grand Duke Gediminas or from Genghis Khan (e.g., Belsky, Mstislavsky, Galitzine, Trubetskoy); 3) ancient families of Muscovite nobility that have been recorded in the service of Grand D ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy

Ivan IV was succeeded by his son Fedor, who was mentally deficient. Actual power went to Fedor's brother-in-law, the boyar Boris Godunov. Perhaps the most important event of Fedor's reign was the proclamation of the patriarchate of Moscow in 1589. The creation of the patriarchate climaxed the evolution of a separate and totally independent Russian Orthodox Church. In 1598 Fedor died without an heir, ending the Rurik Dynasty. Boris Godunov then convened a Zemsky Sobor, a national assembly of boyars, church officials, and commone ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Time of Troubles

The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. Fortunately for Russia, its major enemies, Poland and Sweden, were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Russia the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617 and to sign a truce with Poland in 1619. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the city of Smolensk (the Smolensk War) from Poland in 1632, Russia made peace with Poland in 1634. Polish king Wladyslaw IV, whose father and predecessor Sigismund III had been elected by Russian boyars as tsar of Russia during the Time of Troubles, renounced all claims to the title ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Romanovs

Muscovy remained a fairly unknown society in western Europe until Baron Sigismund von Herberstein published his Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii (literally Notes on Muscovite Affairs) in 1549. This provided a comprehensive view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, Muscovy was visited by Adam Olearius, whose lively and well-informed writings were soon translated into all major languages of Europe. Further exploration of the Russian lands was conducted by English and Dutch merchants. One of t ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy

Ukraine is subdivided into twenty-four oblasts (provinces) and one autonomous republic, Crimea. Additionally, two cities, Kiev and Sevastopol, have a special legal status. Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Autonomous Republic of Crimea Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kirovohrad Kiev Oblast Luhansk Lviv Mykolaiv Odessa Poltava ...

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Ukraine, Ukraine - Name, Ukraine - History, Ukraine - Government and Politics, Ukraine - Subdivisions, Ukraine - Geography, Ukraine - Economy, Ukraine - Demographics, Ukraine - Religion, Ukraine - Culture, Ukraine - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Ukraine: Encyclopedia II - Ukraine - Subdivisions

Internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 15th century, the rulers of Muscovy considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes of Rurikid stock still claimed specific territories, but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Muscovy and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs. Gradually, the Muscovite ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar. By assuming t ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy

With the fall of Communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Massacre in Jedwabne, the Koniuchy Massacre, the Kielce pogrom, the Auschwitz cross, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general). According to the Coordination Forum of Countering Antisemitism there were eighteen anti-Semitic incidents in Poland i ...

See also:

History of the Jews in Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history: 966–1385, History of the Jews in Poland - The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505, History of the Jews in Poland - Center of the Jewish world: 1505–72, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795, History of the Jews in Poland - The Warsaw Confederation, History of the Jews in Poland - Increasing isolation, History of the Jews in Poland - The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge, History of the Jews in Poland - Decline under the Saxon Dynasty, History of the Jews in Poland - The Partitions, History of the Jews in Poland - The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish learning, History of the Jews in Poland - The rise of Hasidism, History of the Jews in Poland - Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire 1795–1918, History of the Jews in Poland - Pogroms, History of the Jews in Poland - Haskalah and Halakha, History of the Jews in Poland - Politics in Polish Territory, History of the Jews in Poland - Interwar period 1918–39, History of the Jews in Poland - Independence and Polish Jews, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish and Polish culture, History of the Jews in Poland - Growing anti-Semitism, History of the Jews in Poland - WWII and the destruction of Polish Jewry 1939–45, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish September campaign, History of the Jews in Poland - Soviet-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - The Holocaust: German-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Communist rule: 1945–89, History of the Jews in Poland - Postwar, History of the Jews in Poland - 1967–1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Since 1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Notes

Read more here: » History of the Jews in Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of the Jews in Poland - Since 1989

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century. In the south-west, it acquired eastern Ukraine, which had been under Polish rule. The Ukrainian Cossacks, warriors organized in military formations, lived in the frontier areas bordering Poland, the Tatar lands, and Russia. Although they had served in the Polish army as mercenaries, the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host remained fiercely independent and staged a number of rebellions against the Poles. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Cossacks in rebellion during the ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Expansion

The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. Fortunately for Russia, its major enemies, Poland and Sweden, were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Russia the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617 and to sign a truce with Poland in 1619. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the city of Smolensk (the Smolensk War) from Poland in 1632, Russia made peace with Poland in 1634. Polish king Wladyslaw IV, whose father and predecessor Sigismund III had been elected by Russian boyars as tsar of Russia during the Time of Troubles, renounced all claims to the title ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Romanovs

Ivan IV was succeeded by his son Fedor, who was mentally deficient. Actual power went to Fedor's brother-in-law, the boyar Boris Godunov. Perhaps the most important event of Fedor's reign was the proclamation of the patriarchate of Moscow in 1589. The creation of the patriarchate climaxed the evolution of a separate and totally independent Russian Orthodox Church. In 1598 Fedor died without an heir, ending the Rurik Dynasty. Boris Godunov then convened a Zemsky Sobor, a national assembly of boyars, church officials, and commone ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Time of Troubles

Muscovy remained a fairly unknown society in western Europe until Baron Sigismund von Herberstein published his Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii (literally Notes on Muscovite Affairs) in 1549. This provided a comprehensive view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, Muscovy was visited by Adam Olearius, whose lively and well-informed writings were soon translated into all major languages of Europe. Further exploration of the Russian lands was conducted by English and Dutch merchants. One of t ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy

Main article: Imperial Russia. The following article in the series describes how in the 18th century, Russia was transformed from a static, somewhat isolated, traditional state into the more dynamic, partially Westernized, and secularized Russian Empire. This transformation was in no small measure a result of the vision, energy, and determination of Peter the Great. Historians disagree about the extent to which Peter himself transformed Russia, but they generally concur that he laid the foundations for empire building over the ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia

Main article: Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks At the end of 16th century commander of Ukrainian Cossacks were also called Hetmans (or atamans). From 1648 Bohdan Khmelnytsky's Chmielnicki uprising, Hetman was the head of the Cossack state. Cossack hetmans had very broad powers and acted as heads of the Cossack state, their supreme military commanders, the top legislators (by issuing administrative decrees). After the split of Ukraine along the Dnieper River by the Polish-Russian Treaty of Andrusovo 1667, Ukrainian Cossacks (and Cossack Hetmans) are known ...

See also:

Hetman, Hetman - Etymology, Hetman - Hetmans of Poland and Lithuania, Hetman - Hetmans of Cossacks

Read more here: » Hetman: Encyclopedia II - Hetman - Hetmans of Cossacks

The development of the tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, and he became known as the Terrible (his Russian epithet, groznyy, means threatening or dreaded). Ivan strengthened the position of the tsar to an unprecedented degree, demonstrating the risks of unbridled power in the hands of a mentally unstable individual. Although apparently intelligent and energetic, Ivan suffered from bouts of paranoia and depression, and his r ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV

Boyars were hereditary nobles of three categories: 1) Rurikid princes of Upper Oka towns, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, etc. that lived in Moscow after their hereditary principalities had been incorporated into Muscovy (e.g., Shuisky, Vorotynsky, Repnin, Romodanovsky); 2) foreign princes from Lithuania and Golden Horde, claiming descent either from Grand Duke Gediminas or from Genghis Khan (e.g., Belsky, Mstislavsky, Galitzine, Trubetskoy); 3) ancient families of Muscovite nobility that have been recorded in the service of Grand D ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy

Although Khmelnytsky's personal resentment influenced his decision to rid Ukraine of Polish and Ruthenian magnates and Jews, it seems that his ambition to become the ruler of Ukraine was the main motive that led him to instigate an uprising of the Ruthenian people against them, known after him as the Chmielnicki Uprising. Within a few months, almost all Polish nobles, officials, and priests had been wiped out or driven from Ukraine. Jewish losses were especially heavy because they were the most numerous and accessible representatives ...

See also:

Khmelnytskyi Uprising, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Background, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Chmielnicki's role, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - The uprising, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Jews and the Uprising, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - The aftermath

Read more here: » Khmelnytskyi Uprising: Encyclopedia II - Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Chmielnicki's role

On the 10 September, near Cecora, the Commonwealth army encountered the Tatar and Ottoman forces (13,000-22,000), which had been sent by the Ottoman sultan to help Gabriel Bethlen in his struggle against the Habsburgs. The Tatar force took Commonwealth defenders by surprise, taking many prisoners. During the first day of fight (the 18th), most of the Moldavians decided to switch sides, and quickly attacked the Polish flank. Mercenaries, private troops and their magnate leaders, were lacking in discipline and morale. Stanisław Koniecpolski c ...

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Battle of Cecora, Battle of Cecora - Prelude to battle, Battle of Cecora - The battle, Battle of Cecora - Notes

Read more here: » Battle of Cecora: Encyclopedia II - Battle of Cecora - The battle

Genocides in history - Biblical genocides. A record of several alleged genocides is found in the Bible, although the perceived accuracy and import of the account related to the reader's opinion of the Bible as a whole. To name a few: The sexual abuse and killing of the Israelites by the Egyptians. The war and ensuing genocide waged against the Canaanite by the Israelites, in which God gives a commandment to never allow any Canaanite to remain alive. The extermi ...

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Genocides in history, Genocides in history - Ancient/medieval genocides, Genocides in history - Biblical genocides, Genocides in history - Scythian slaughter of Cimmerians, Genocides in history - Roman Empire, Genocides in history - France, Genocides in history - Genghis Khan and his sons, Genocides in history - Islamic conquest of South Asia, Genocides in history - Genocides from 1500 to 1950, Genocides in history - The Americas, Genocides in history - Canada, Genocides in history - The Congo, Genocides in history - Croatia, Genocides in history - Germany, Genocides in history - German South-West Africa, Genocides in history - Paraguay, Genocides in history - Philippines, Genocides in history - The Commonwealth of Poland - Lithuania, Genocides in history - Turkey, Genocides in history - United States, Genocides in history - USSR, Genocides in history - Genocides from 1951 to 1990, Genocides in history - Algeria, Genocides in history - Australia, Genocides in history - Bangladesh Liberation War, Genocides in history - Cambodia, Genocides in history - Guatemala, Genocides in history - Iraq, Genocides in history - Kashmir and Jammu, Genocides in history - China & Tibet, Genocides in history - Genocides since 1991, Genocides in history - Bosnia, Genocides in history - Rwanda, Genocides in history - Sudan, Genocides in history - Notes

Read more here: » Genocides in history: Encyclopedia II - Genocides in history - Ancient/medieval genocides

Universal acceptance of international laws, defining and forbidding genocide was achieved in 1948, with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide(CPPCG). The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the tr ...

See also:

Genocides in history, Genocides in history - Ancient/medieval genocides, Genocides in history - Biblical genocides, Genocides in history - Scythian slaughter of Cimmerians, Genocides in history - Roman Empire, Genocides in history - France, Genocides in history - Genghis Khan and his sons, Genocides in history - Islamic conquest of South Asia, Genocides in history - Genocides from 1500 to 1950, Genocides in history - The Americas, Genocides in history - Canada, Genocides in history - The Congo, Genocides in history - Croatia, Genocides in history - Germany, Genocides in history - German South-West Africa, Genocides in history - Paraguay, Genocides in history - Philippines, Genocides in history - The Commonwealth of Poland - Lithuania, Genocides in history - Turkey, Genocides in history - United States, Genocides in history - USSR, Genocides in history - Genocides from 1951 to 1990, Genocides in history - Algeria, Genocides in history - Australia, Genocides in history - Bangladesh Liberation War, Genocides in history - Cambodia, Genocides in history - Guatemala, Genocides in history - Iraq, Genocides in history - Kashmir and Jammu, Genocides in history - China & Tibet, Genocides in history - Genocides since 1991, Genocides in history - Bosnia, Genocides in history - Rwanda, Genocides in history - Sudan, Genocides in history - Notes

Read more here: » Genocides in history: Encyclopedia II - Genocides in history - Genocides from 1951 to 1990

Internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 15th century, the rulers of Muscovy considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes of Rurikid stock still claimed specific territories, but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Muscovy and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs. Gradually, the Muscovite ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar. By assuming t ...

See also:

Muscovy, Muscovy - Rise of Muscovy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy, Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Aristocracy, Muscovy - The time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - Time of Troubles, Muscovy - Romanovs, Muscovy - Expansion, Muscovy - Western European knowledge of Muscovy, Muscovy - Early Imperial Russia, Muscovy - See Also

Read more here: » Muscovy: Encyclopedia II - Muscovy - Evolution of the Russian Autocracy

In 1951 only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the CPPCG: France and the Republic of China. The CPPCG was ratified by the Soviet Union in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. So it was only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced. Genocides in history - BosniaSee also:

Genocides in history, Genocides in history - Ancient/medieval genocides, Genocides in history - Biblical genocides, Genocides in history - Scythian slaughter of Cimmerians, Genocides in history - Roman Empire, Genocides in history - France, Genocides in history - Genghis Khan and his sons, Genocides in history - Islamic conquest of South Asia, Genocides in history - Genocides from 1500 to 1950, Genocides in history - The Americas, Genocides in history - Canada, Genocides in history - The Congo, Genocides in history - Croatia, Genocides in history - Germany, Genocides in history - German South-West Africa, Genocides in history - Paraguay, Genocides in history - Philippines, Genocides in history - The Commonwealth of Poland - Lithuania, Genocides in history - Turkey, Genocides in history - United States, Genocides in history - USSR, Genocides in history - Genocides from 1951 to 1990, Genocides in history - Algeria, Genocides in history - Australia, Genocides in history - Bangladesh Liberation War, Genocides in history - Cambodia, Genocides in history - Guatemala, Genocides in history - Iraq, Genocides in history - Kashmir and Jammu, Genocides in history - China & Tibet, Genocides in history - Genocides since 1991, Genocides in history - Bosnia, Genocides in history - Rwanda, Genocides in history - Sudan, Genocides in history - Notes

Read more here: » Genocides in history: Encyclopedia II - Genocides in history - Genocides since 1991

Ukraine is a democracy under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The President of Ukraine (elected by popular vote) nominates the Prime Minister, who must be confirmed by the 450-seat parliament, the Verkhovna Rada. The President (on advice and consent of the Prime Minister) appoints members of the Cabinet of Ministers, as well as heads of all central agencies and regional and district administrations. Laws, acts of the parliament and the Cabinet, presidential edicts, and acts of the ...

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Ukraine, Ukraine - Name, Ukraine - History, Ukraine - Government and Politics, Ukraine - Subdivisions, Ukraine - Geography, Ukraine - Economy, Ukraine - Demographics, Ukraine - Religion, Ukraine - Culture, Ukraine - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Ukraine: Encyclopedia II - Ukraine - Government and Politics