Biochemistry the chemistry of life, a bridge between biology and chemistry that studies how complex chemical reactions give rise to life. It is a hybrid branch of chemistry which specialises in the chemical processes in living organisms. This article only discusses terrestrial biochemistry (carbon- and water-based), as all the life forms we know are on Earth. Since life forms alive today are believed to have descended from the same common ancestor, they naturally have similar biochemistries, even for matters which would appear to be e ...

Including:

• Biochemistry - Development of biochemistry
• Biochemistry - Carbohydrates
• Biochemistry - Proteins
• Biochemistry - Lipids
• Biochemistry - Nucleic acids
• Biochemistry - Relationship to other molecular-scale biological sciences

Read more here: » Biochemistry: Encyclopedia - Biochemistry

See also:

Biochemistry, Biochemistry - Development of biochemistry, Biochemistry - Carbohydrates, Biochemistry - Proteins, Biochemistry - Lipids, Biochemistry - Nucleic acids, Biochemistry - Relationship to other molecular-scale biological sciences

Read more here: » Biochemistry: Encyclopedia II - Biochemistry - Carbohydrates

Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the way nonlife was. It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules). Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper about the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially. The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase, in 1833 by Anselme Payen. It is generally accepted that the term biochemistry was coi ...

See also:

Biochemistry, Biochemistry - Development of biochemistry, Biochemistry - Carbohydrates, Biochemistry - Proteins, Biochemistry - Lipids, Biochemistry - Nucleic acids, Biochemistry - Relationship to other molecular-scale biological sciences

Read more here: » Biochemistry: Encyclopedia II - Biochemistry - Development of biochemistry

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms. They consist of monosaccharide sugars of varying chain lengths and that have the general chemical formula Cn(H2O)n or are derivatives of such. Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals. Carbohydrates are classified by the number of sugar units into monosacchharides (such as glucose), disaccharides (such as saccharose), oligosaccha ...

Including:

• Carbohydrate - Structure
• Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides
• Carbohydrate - Disaccharides
• Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
• Carbohydrate - Nutrition
• Carbohydrate - Catabolism

Read more here: » Carbohydrate: Encyclopedia - Carbohydrate

Cell metabolism is the process (or really the sum of many ongoing individual processes) by which living cells process nutrient molecules and maintain a living state. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: anabolism, in which a cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other life functions such a creating cellular structure; and catabolism, in which a cell breaks down complex molecules to yield energy and reducing power. Cell metabolism involves extremely complex sequences of controlle ...

Including:

• Cell metabolism - Anabolism
• Cell metabolism - Catabolism
• Cell metabolism - Carbohydrate catabolism
• Cell metabolism - Fat catabolism
• Cell metabolism - Protein catabolism

Read more here: » Cell metabolism: Encyclopedia - Cell metabolism

A biomolecule is a chemical compound that naturally occurs in living organisms. Biomolecules consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen, along with nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. Other elements sometimes are incorporated but these are much less common. Biomolecules are necessary for the existence of all known forms of life. For example, humans possess skin and hair. The main component of hair is keratin, an agglomeration of proteins which are themselves polymers built from amino acids. Amino acids are some of the most i ...

Including:

• Biomolecule - Types of biomolecules
• Biomolecule - Nucleosides and nucleotides
• Biomolecule - Saccharides
• Biomolecule - Lipids
• Biomolecule - Hormones
• Biomolecule - Amino acids
• Biomolecule - Protein structure
• Biomolecule - Metalloproteins
• Biomolecule - Vitamins

Read more here: » Biomolecule: Encyclopedia - Biomolecule

The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth. (Other bodies may have carbon cycles, but little is known about them.) All of these components are reservoirs of carbon. The cycle is usually thought of as four main reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange. The reservoirs are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (usually includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). The annual mov ...

Including:

• Carbon cycle - Carbon in the atmosphere
• Carbon cycle - Carbon in the biosphere
• Carbon cycle - Carbon cycle modelling

Read more here: » Carbon cycle: Encyclopedia - Carbon cycle

Biophysics (also biological physics) is an interdisciplinary science that applies the theories and methods of physical sciences to questions of biology. Biophysics research today comprises a number of specific biological studies, which do not share a unique identifying factor, or subject themselves to clear and concise definitions. This is the result of biophysics' relatively recent appearance as a scientific discipline. The studies included under the umbrella of biophysics range from sequence comparison to neural networ ...

Including:

• Biophysics - Overview
• Biophysics - Topics in biophysics and related fields
• Biophysics - Famous biophysicists
• Biophysics - Other notable biophysicists

Read more here: » Biophysics: Encyclopedia - Biophysics

In general use, "sugar" is taken to mean sucrose, also called "table sugar" or saccharose, a disaccharide which is a white crystalline solid. It is the most commonly used sugar for altering the flavor and properties (such as "mouthfeel", preservation, and texture) of beverages and food. Table sugar is commercially extracted from either sugar cane or sugar beet. The word sugar originates from the Sanskrit word Sharkara which means "sugar" or "pebble." The "simple" sugars, or monosaccharides, such as glucose, are a store of energy which is used by biological cells. A sugar is denoted by any word ...

Including:

• Sugar - Production
• Sugar - Cane
• Sugar - Beet
• Sugar - Cane versus Beet
• Sugar - Types of culinary sugar
• Sugar - Chemistry
• Sugar - History
• Sugar - The history of sugar in the West
• Sugar - The rise of beet
• Sugar - Mechanization
• Sugar - Health concerns
• Sugar - Sugar and hyperactivity
• Sugar - Sugar economics

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An antibody is a protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target. Production of antibodies is referred to as the humoral immune system. Antibody - Definition. Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins in the immunoglobulin superfamily that function as antibodies. The terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably. They are found in the blood and tissue fluids, as w ...

Including:

• Antibody - Definition
• Antibody - Structure of the antibody
• Antibody - Isotypes
• Antibody - IgG
• Antibody - IgA
• Antibody - IgM
• Antibody - IgD
• Antibody - IgE
• Antibody - Function
• Antibody - The humoral immune response
• Antibody - Medical applications
• Antibody - Biochemical applications

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Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound best recognized for giving vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. Pure water-free acetic acid is a colourless hygroscopic liquid (that is, it readily absorbs water) that freezes below 16.7 °C (62 °F) to a colourless crystalline solid. Acetic acid is corrosive, and its vapour is irritating to eyes and nose, although it is a weak acid based ...

Including:

• Acetic acid - Nomenclature
• Acetic acid - History
• Acetic acid - Chemical properties
• Acetic acid - Biochemistry
• Acetic acid - Production
• Acetic acid - Methanol carbonylation
• Acetic acid - Acetaldehyde oxidation
• Acetic acid - Ethylene oxidation
• Acetic acid - Fermentation
• Acetic acid - Applications
• Acetic acid - Vinyl acetate monomer
• Acetic acid - Acetic anhydride
• Acetic acid - Ester production
• Acetic acid - Vinegar
• Acetic acid - Use as solvent
• Acetic acid - Other applications
• Acetic acid - Safety

Read more here: » Acetic acid: Encyclopedia - Acetic acid

Catabolism is a type of metabolic process occurring in living cells by which complex molecules are broken down to produce energy and reducing power. On balance, catabolic reactions are normally exothermic. Cell metabolism - Carbohydrate catabolism. Main article: Carbohydrate catabolism Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. The empirical formula for carbohydrates, like that of their monomer counterparts, is CX(H2YOYSee also:

Cell metabolism, Cell metabolism - Anabolism, Cell metabolism - Catabolism, Cell metabolism - Carbohydrate catabolism, Cell metabolism - Fat catabolism, Cell metabolism - Protein catabolism

Read more here: » Cell metabolism: Encyclopedia II - Cell metabolism - Catabolism

Pure carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, in a 1:2:1 molar ratio, giving the general formula Cn(H2O)n. (This applies only to monosaccharides, see below, although all carbohydrates have the more general formula Cn(H2O)m.) However, many important "carbohydrates" deviate from this, such as deoxyribose and glycerol, although they are not, in the strict sense, carbohydrates. Sometimes compounds containing other elements are also counted as carbohydrat ...

See also:

Carbohydrate, Carbohydrate - Structure, Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides, Carbohydrate - Disaccharides, Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, Carbohydrate - Nutrition, Carbohydrate - Catabolism

Read more here: » Carbohydrate: Encyclopedia II - Carbohydrate - Structure

Main article: Anabolism Anabolism is a constructive metabolic process whereby energy is consumed to synthesize or combine simpler substances, such as amino acids, into more complex organic compounds, such as enzymes and nucleic acids. ...

See also:

Cell metabolism, Cell metabolism - Anabolism, Cell metabolism - Catabolism, Cell metabolism - Carbohydrate catabolism, Cell metabolism - Fat catabolism, Cell metabolism - Protein catabolism

Read more here: » Cell metabolism: Encyclopedia II - Cell metabolism - Anabolism

Monosaccharides may be divided into aldoses, which have an aldehyde group on the first carbon atom, and ketoses, which typically have a ketone group on the second. They may also be divided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and so forth, depending on how many carbon atoms they contain. For instance, glucose is an aldohexose, fructose a ketohexose, and ribose an aldopentose. Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is optically active, allowing a number of different carbohydrates ...

See also:

Carbohydrate, Carbohydrate - Structure, Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides, Carbohydrate - Disaccharides, Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, Carbohydrate - Nutrition, Carbohydrate - Catabolism

Read more here: » Carbohydrate: Encyclopedia II - Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides

Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent glycosidic bond. The binding between the two sugars results in the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one molecule and a hydroxyl group (OH) from the other. The most common disaccharides are sucrose (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), lactose (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and maltose (made of two glucoses). The formula of these disaccharides ...

See also:

Carbohydrate, Carbohydrate - Structure, Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides, Carbohydrate - Disaccharides, Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, Carbohydrate - Nutrition, Carbohydrate - Catabolism

Read more here: » Carbohydrate: Encyclopedia II - Carbohydrate - Disaccharides

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between three and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary however. Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of protein posttranslational m ...

See also:

Carbohydrate, Carbohydrate - Structure, Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides, Carbohydrate - Disaccharides, Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, Carbohydrate - Nutrition, Carbohydrate - Catabolism

Read more here: » Carbohydrate: Encyclopedia II - Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

Strictly speaking, carbohydrates are not necessary for human nutrition because proteins can be converted to carbohydrates. The traditional diet of some cultures consists of very little carbohydrate, whose people remaining relatively healthy. However, carbohydrates require less water to digest than proteins or fats and are the most abundant source of energy. Proteins and fat are vital building components for body tissue and cells, and thus it could be considered advisable not to deplete such resources. Very low carbohydrate diets can slow down brain and neural function because the ne ...

See also:

Carbohydrate, Carbohydrate - Structure, Carbohydrate - Monosaccharides, Carbohydrate - Disaccharides, Carbohydrate - Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, Carbohydrate - Nutrition, Carbohydrate - Catabolism

Read more here: » Carbohydrate: Encyclopedia II - Carbohydrate - Nutrition

Biochemically, starch is a combination of two polymeric carbohydrates (polysaccharides) called amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is constituted by glucose monomer units joined to one another head-to-tail forming alpha-1,4 linkages. Amylopectin differs from amylose in that branching occurs, with an alpha-1,6 linkage every 24-30 glucose monomer units. The overall structure of amylopectin is not that of a linear polysaccharide chain since two glucose units frequently form a branch point, so the result is the coiled molecule most suitable ...

See also:

Starch, Starch - Biochemistry, Starch - Starches as food, Starch - Household, Starch - Tests, Starch - Livestock, Starch - Starch derivatives, Starch - External link

Read more here: » Starch: Encyclopedia II - Starch - Biochemistry

The acetyl group, derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to the biochemistry of virtually all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. However, the concentration of free acetic acid in cells is kept at a low level to avoid disrupting the control of the pH of the cell contents. Unlike some longer-chain carboxylic acids (the fatty acids), acetic acid does not occur in natural triglycerides. However, the artificial triglyceride triacetin (glycerin triacetate) is a common food additive, and ...

See also:

Acetic acid, Acetic acid - Nomenclature, Acetic acid - History, Acetic acid - Chemical properties, Acetic acid - Biochemistry, Acetic acid - Production, Acetic acid - Methanol carbonylation, Acetic acid - Acetaldehyde oxidation, Acetic acid - Ethylene oxidation, Acetic acid - Fermentation, Acetic acid - Applications, Acetic acid - Vinyl acetate monomer, Acetic acid - Acetic anhydride, Acetic acid - Ester production, Acetic acid - Vinegar, Acetic acid - Use as solvent, Acetic acid - Other applications, Acetic acid - Safety

Read more here: » Acetic acid: Encyclopedia II - Acetic acid - Biochemistry