Egypt's cultural contributions have included great works of science dating from antiquity to modern times. Culture of Egypt - Ptolemy. Ptolemy is one of the most famous scientists associated with Egypt. Although he was born in Greece, he is famous for his work in Alexandria. Born Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαίος; c. 85 – c. 165),he was a Greek geographer, astronomer, and astrologer. He is consi ...

See also:

Culture of Egypt, Culture of Egypt - Language, Culture of Egypt - Literature, Culture of Egypt - Religion, Culture of Egypt - Visual art, Culture of Egypt - Egyptian art in antiquity, Culture of Egypt - Egyptian art in modern times, Culture of Egypt - Science, Culture of Egypt - Ptolemy, Culture of Egypt - Eratosthenes, Culture of Egypt - Library of Alexandria, Culture of Egypt - Ahmed Hasan Zewail, Culture of Egypt - Egyptology, Culture of Egypt - Music and dance, Culture of Egypt - Cuisine

Read more here: » Culture of Egypt: Encyclopedia II - Culture of Egypt - Science

The Arabic language has many different 'branches'. Whether these are to be considered mere dialects or separate languages is a question of debate. The fact is, that it is not self-evident that all Arabic-speaking people understand each other when they speak. Each Arab country has developed its own variant of Arabic. The Arabic spoken in Egypt is very well understood by most Arabic-speaking people. One of the reasons for this is the flourishing Egyptian film industry. Their films are watched by millions of people in the Arabic-speaking ...

See also:

Languages of Muslim countries, Languages of Muslim countries - Majority Muslim countries, Languages of Muslim countries - Countries with significant Muslim minorities, Languages of Muslim countries - Variations in Arabic

Read more here: » Languages of Muslim countries: Encyclopedia II - Languages of Muslim countries - Variations in Arabic

Medieval scholars sometimes linked two or more branches of Afro-Asiatic together; already in the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh of Tiaret, Algeria perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic (the latter being known to him through Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.) In the 1800's, Europeans began suggesting such relationships; thus in 1844 Th. Benfey suggested a language family containing Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year, T. N. Newman suggested a relationship betwee ...

See also:

Afro-Asiatic languages, Afro-Asiatic languages - Common features and cognates, Afro-Asiatic languages - Classification history, Afro-Asiatic languages - Etymological bibliography, Afro-Asiatic languages - Sources

Read more here: » Afro-Asiatic languages: Encyclopedia II - Afro-Asiatic languages - Classification history

The following table provides all of the Unicode characters for Arabic, and none of the supplementary letters used for other languages. The transliteration given is the widespread DIN 31635 standard, with some common alternatives. See the article Arabic transliteration for details and various other transliteration schemes. Regarding pronunciation, the phonetic values given are those of the "standard" pronunciation of the fusha language as taught in universities. Actual pronunciation between the varieties of Arabic may vary widely. For more details concerning the pronu ...

See also:

Arabic alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Structure of the Arabic alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Abjadi order, Arabic alphabet - Presentation of the alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Primary letters, Arabic alphabet - Hamza, Arabic alphabet - Diacritics, Arabic alphabet - Numerals, Arabic alphabet - History, Arabic alphabet - Arabic alphabets of other languages, Arabic alphabet - Current uses of the alphabet for other languages, Arabic alphabet - Former uses of the alphabet for other languages, Arabic alphabet - Computers and the Arabic alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Arabic keyboard layout

Read more here: » Arabic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Arabic alphabet - Presentation of the alphabet

Originally, the Maghreb was inhabited by "white" Cro-Magnoids (Iberomaurusians) in the north and by "black" peoples in the Sahara. Later, about 8000 BC, there came from the east "white" speakers of northern Afro-Asiatic languages such as Berber at least since the Capsian culture. Many ports along the Maghreb coast were occupied by Phoenicians, particularly Carthaginians; with the defeat of Carthage, many of these ports naturally passed to Rome, and ultimately it took control of the entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains, apart from some of the most mountai ...

See also:

Maghreb, Maghreb - Modern territories of the Maghreb, Maghreb - Medieval regions of the Maghreb, Maghreb - History

Read more here: » Maghreb: Encyclopedia II - Maghreb - History

At the 1999 census, INSEE sampled 380,000 adult people all across Metropolitan France, and asked them questions about their family situation. One of the questions was about the languages that their parents spoke with them before the age of 5. This is the first time serious statistics were computed about the proportion of mother tongues in France. The results were published in Enquête familiale, Insee, 1999. Here is a list of the nine most prominent mother tongues in France based on Enquête familiale. Before trying to u ...

See also:

Languages of France, Languages of France - Government outlook, Languages of France - List of languages, Languages of France - Statistics, Languages of France - Important notes to understand the table

Read more here: » Languages of France: Encyclopedia II - Languages of France - Statistics

Rivers and lakes: Chott Melrhir, Mazafran, Oued El Harrach, Chiffa, Isser, Sebaou, Daas, Soummam, El Malah, El Hammam, Mekkera, Tafna, Chott Chergui, Seybouse, Rhumel, Medjerda, Cheliff, Zahrez, Chott el Hodna, Moulouya Towns: Messad, Hennchir Besseriani, Bir el Ater, Miliana, Sidi Fredj/Sidi Ferruch Areas: Hodna, Mzab, Ouarsenis, Mitidja, Nemencha, Dahra, Tidikelt, Titteri Prehistory: Ibero-Maurusian, Mechta-Afalou, P ...

See also:

List of Algeria-related topics, List of Algeria-related topics - A, List of Algeria-related topics - B, List of Algeria-related topics - C, List of Algeria-related topics - D, List of Algeria-related topics - E, List of Algeria-related topics - F, List of Algeria-related topics - G, List of Algeria-related topics - H, List of Algeria-related topics - I, List of Algeria-related topics - J, List of Algeria-related topics - K, List of Algeria-related topics - L, List of Algeria-related topics - M, List of Algeria-related topics - N, List of Algeria-related topics - O, List of Algeria-related topics - P, List of Algeria-related topics - Q, List of Algeria-related topics - R, List of Algeria-related topics - S, List of Algeria-related topics - T, List of Algeria-related topics - U, List of Algeria-related topics - V, List of Algeria-related topics - W, List of Algeria-related topics - X, List of Algeria-related topics - Y, List of Algeria-related topics - Z, List of Algeria-related topics - List of Unedited Articles

Read more here: » List of Algeria-related topics: Encyclopedia II - List of Algeria-related topics - List of Unedited Articles

Moroccan Arabic is grammatically simpler, and has a less voluminous vocabulary than Classical Arabic. It has also integrated many Berber, French and Spanish words. Spanish borrowed words are probably older in Moroccan Arabic than the French ones, some words might have been brought by Moriscos who spoke Andalusi Arabic which has been influenced by Spanish (Castilian), others might have been brought in because of commercial contacts with Spain. French words ...

See also:

Moroccan Arabic, Moroccan Arabic - Overview, Moroccan Arabic - Integration with other languages, Moroccan Arabic - Pronunciation, Moroccan Arabic - Vocabulary, Moroccan Arabic - Some words borrowed from Berber, Moroccan Arabic - Some words borrowed from French, Moroccan Arabic - Some words borrowed from Spanish, Moroccan Arabic - Grammar, Moroccan Arabic - Evolution, Moroccan Arabic - Diglossia and social prestige, Moroccan Arabic - Artistic expression

Read more here: » Moroccan Arabic: Encyclopedia II - Moroccan Arabic - Vocabulary

According to the census of 1966, Arabic is the language of 81% of Algeria's population; in addition to this, non-native speakers learn Arabic at school. In Algeria, as elsewhere, spoken Arabic differs very substantially from written Arabic; Algerian Arabic has a much-simplified vowel system, a substantially changed vocabulary with many new words and many words from Berber, Turkish, and French, and, like all Arabic dialects, has dropped the case endings of the written language. Within Algerian Arabic itself, there are significant local variat ...

See also:

Languages of Algeria, Languages of Algeria - Arabic, Languages of Algeria - Berber, Languages of Algeria - Romance languages, Languages of Algeria - Sub-Saharan African languages, Languages of Algeria - Sign languages, Languages of Algeria - Phoenician, Languages of Algeria - Turkish

Read more here: » Languages of Algeria: Encyclopedia II - Languages of Algeria - Arabic

The Arabic alphabet is written from right to left and is composed of 28 basic letters. Adaptations of the script for other languages such as Persian and Urdu have additional letters. There is no difference between written and printed letters; the writing is unicase (i.e. the concept of upper and lower case letters does not exist). On the other hand, most of the letters are attached to one another, even when printed, and their appearance changes as a function of whether they connect to preceding or fol ...

See also:

Arabic alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Structure of the Arabic alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Abjadi order, Arabic alphabet - Presentation of the alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Primary letters, Arabic alphabet - Hamza, Arabic alphabet - Diacritics, Arabic alphabet - Numerals, Arabic alphabet - History, Arabic alphabet - Arabic alphabets of other languages, Arabic alphabet - Current uses of the alphabet for other languages, Arabic alphabet - Former uses of the alphabet for other languages, Arabic alphabet - Computers and the Arabic alphabet, Arabic alphabet - Arabic keyboard layout

Read more here: » Arabic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Arabic alphabet - Structure of the Arabic alphabet

Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that one must usually understand something of the associated language in order to successfully read and comprehend the text. Contrast this with other possible symbolic systems such as information signs, painting, maps, and mathematics, which do not necessarily depend upon prior knowledge of a given language in order to extract their meaning. Every human community possesses language, a feature regarded by many as an innate and defining condition of ...

See also:

Writing system, Writing system - General properties, Writing system - Basic terminology, Writing system - History of writing systems, Writing system - Types of writing system, Writing system - Logographic writing systems, Writing system - Syllabic writing systems, Writing system - Alphabetic writing systems, Writing system - Featural writing systems, Writing system - Directionality

Read more here: » Writing system: Encyclopedia II - Writing system - General properties

The study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines in the examination of individual scripts, and as such the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field. The generic term text may be used to refer to an individual product of a writing system. The act of composing a text may be referred to as writing, and the act of interpreting the text as reading. In the study of writing systems, orthography refers to the method and rules of observed writing structure (literal meaning, "correct writing"), and in particular for alphabet ...

See also:

Writing system, Writing system - General properties, Writing system - Basic terminology, Writing system - History of writing systems, Writing system - Types of writing system, Writing system - Logographic writing systems, Writing system - Syllabic writing systems, Writing system - Alphabetic writing systems, Writing system - Featural writing systems, Writing system - Directionality

Read more here: » Writing system: Encyclopedia II - Writing system - Basic terminology

Before there was writing, there was proto-writing. However few surviving examples exist, with some authorities questioning the inscriptions as early writing at all. Some believe them to be ideographic, early mnemonic devices of sorts, which may have been invented over time by creative prehistoric individuals. The two best known examples are: Old European Script, 6000 BC - 4000 BC Tărtăria inscriptions, 4500 BC Old European script is disputed as actual proto-writi ...

See also:

Writing system, Writing system - General properties, Writing system - Basic terminology, Writing system - History of writing systems, Writing system - Types of writing system, Writing system - Logographic writing systems, Writing system - Syllabic writing systems, Writing system - Alphabetic writing systems, Writing system - Featural writing systems, Writing system - Directionality

Read more here: » Writing system: Encyclopedia II - Writing system - History of writing systems

Different scripts are written in different directions. The early alphabet could be written in any direction: either horizontal (left-to-right or right-to-left) or vertical (up or down). It could also be written boustrophedon: starting horizontally in one direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction. Egyptian hieroglyph is one such script, where the beginning of a line written horizontally was to be indicated by the direction ...

See also:

Writing system, Writing system - General properties, Writing system - Basic terminology, Writing system - History of writing systems, Writing system - Types of writing system, Writing system - Logographic writing systems, Writing system - Syllabic writing systems, Writing system - Alphabetic writing systems, Writing system - Featural writing systems, Writing system - Directionality

Read more here: » Writing system: Encyclopedia II - Writing system - Directionality

France - Marianne. Main articles: Marianne, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]] M ...

See also:

France, France - Geography, France - History, France - Government and politics, France - Military, France - Administrative divisions, France - Economy, France - Demographics, France - Population, France - Languages, France - Cities, France - Culture, France - Marianne, France - Religion, France - Terminology, France - Origin of the country's name, France - Meanings of the name France, France - Miscellaneous topics, France - International rankings, France - Notes and references

Read more here: » France: Encyclopedia II - France - Culture

France's economy combines extensive private enterprise (nearly 2.5 million companies registered) with substantial (though declining) government intervention (see dirigisme). The government retains considerable influence over key segments of infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunication firms. It has been gradually relaxing its control over these sectors since the early 1990s. The government is slowly selling off holding ...

See also:

France, France - Geography, France - History, France - Government and politics, France - Military, France - Administrative divisions, France - Economy, France - Demographics, France - Population, France - Languages, France - Cities, France - Culture, France - Marianne, France - Religion, France - Terminology, France - Origin of the country's name, France - Meanings of the name France, France - Miscellaneous topics, France - International rankings, France - Notes and references

Read more here: » France: Encyclopedia II - France - Economy

Main articles: Government of France and Politics of France The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on September 28, 1958. It greatly strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to Parliament. Under the constitution, the President of the French Republic is elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year (originally 7-year) term. Presidential arbitration assures regular functioning of the public powers and the continuity of the state. The president names the prime minister, presides over the cabinet, ...

See also:

France, France - Geography, France - History, France - Government and politics, France - Military, France - Administrative divisions, France - Economy, France - Demographics, France - Population, France - Languages, France - Cities, France - Culture, France - Marianne, France - Religion, France - Terminology, France - Origin of the country's name, France - Meanings of the name France, France - Miscellaneous topics, France - International rankings, France - Notes and references

Read more here: » France: Encyclopedia II - France - Government and politics

France - Marianne. Main article: Marianne Marianne is a symbol of the French Republic. She is an allegorical figure of liberty and the Republic and first appeared at the time of the French Revolution. The earliest representations of Marianne are of a woman wearing a Phrygian cap. The origins of the name Marianne are unknown, but Marie-Anne was a very common first name in the 18th century. Anti-revolutionaries of the time derisively called her La République. It is believed that r ...

See also:

France, France - Geography, France - History, France - Government and politics, France - Military, France - Administrative divisions, France - Economy, France - Demographics, France - Population, France - Languages, France - Cities, France - Culture, France - Marianne, France - Religion, France - Terminology, France - Origin of the country's name, France - Meanings of the name France, France - Miscellaneous topics, France - International rankings, France - Notes and references

Read more here: » France: Encyclopedia II - France - Culture

The Berber languages (or Berber language) are spoken in many parts of Algeria, but mainly in Kabylie and around Batna; according to the 1966 census, 19% of Algerians speak Berber. The Berber languages/dialects spoken in Algeria include: In the north: Kabyle in Kabylie Chaouia around Batna Chenoua around Cherchell Tarifit around Arzew probably extinct, in western Algeria: Beni Snous Achacha Ouarsenis

The Korandje language of the Saharan oasis of Tabelbala is a heavily Berber-influenced variety of Songhay, a language more widely spoken far to the south in Niger. Another northern Songhay language, Tadaksahak, may be spoken in parts of the far south; its nomadic speakers range over a wide area centered in northern Mali. There are also a few thousand Hausa speakers in the south. ...

See also:

Languages of Algeria, Languages of Algeria - Arabic, Languages of Algeria - Berber, Languages of Algeria - Romance languages, Languages of Algeria - Sub-Saharan African languages, Languages of Algeria - Sign languages, Languages of Algeria - Phoenician, Languages of Algeria - Turkish

Read more here: » Languages of Algeria: Encyclopedia II - Languages of Algeria - Sub-Saharan African languages

French is a part of the standard school curriculum, and is widely understood; estimates indicate that 20% of the population can read and write it[1]. There is also a very small community of French native speakers, including pied noirs who stayed behind. The pied noirs developed a distinctive dialect, termed Pataouète. Other Romance languages with a notable historical presence in Algeria include: Ladino was formerly spoken by some Algerian Jews, particularly around Oran, in the Tetuani dialect; however, most shifted to French du ...

See also:

Languages of Algeria, Languages of Algeria - Arabic, Languages of Algeria - Berber, Languages of Algeria - Romance languages, Languages of Algeria - Sub-Saharan African languages, Languages of Algeria - Sign languages, Languages of Algeria - Phoenician, Languages of Algeria - Turkish

Read more here: » Languages of Algeria: Encyclopedia II - Languages of Algeria - Romance languages