aromatic hydrocarbons

The first thermal cracking method, the Burton process, was invented by William M. Burton; the oil industry first using it to produce gasoline in 1913. Catalytic cracking, based upon a process developed by Dr. Alex Golden Oblad at Standard Oil of Indiana has been used from around 1936. Typical catalysts include alumina, silica, zeolites, and various types of clay. ...

See also:

Cracking chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Applications, Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking, Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking, Cracking chemistry - History

Read more here: » Cracking chemistry: Encyclopedia II - Cracking chemistry - History

Many of the non-aliphatic hydrocarbons naturally present in gasoline (especially aromatic ones like benzene), as well as many anti-knocking additives, are carcinogenic. Because of this, any large-scale or ongoing leaks of gasoline pose a threat to the public's health and the environment, should the gasoline reach a public supply of drinking water. The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extens ...

See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia II - Gasoline - Dangers

Gasoline contains about 45 megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) or 135MJ/US gallon. Volumetric energy density of some fuels compared to gasoline: A high octane fuel such as LPG has a lower energy content than lower octane gasoline, resulting in an overall lower power output at the regular compression ratio an engine ran at on gasoline. However, with an engine tuned to the use of LPG (ie. via higher compression ratios such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a ...

See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia II - Gasoline - Energy content

Liquid geologically-extracted hydrocarbons are referred to as petroleum (literally "rock oil") or mineral oil, while gaseous geologic hydrocarbons are referred to as natural gas. All are significant sources of fuel and raw materials as a feedstock for the production of organic chemicals and are commonly found in the Earth´s subsurface using the tools of petroleum geology. Oil reserves in sedimentary rocks are the principal source of hydrocarbons for the energy, transport and chemicals industries. The production of liquid hydrocarbon fuel from a number of sedimentary basins has be ...

See also:

Hydrocarbon, Hydrocarbon - Examples, Hydrocarbon - Three types of hydrocarbons, Hydrocarbon - The number of hydrogen atoms, Hydrocarbon - Molecular graph, Hydrocarbon - Petroleum, Hydrocarbon - Burning Hydrocarbons

Read more here: » Hydrocarbon: Encyclopedia II - Hydrocarbon - Petroleum

A major industrial application for copper(II) chloride is as a co-catalyst (along with palladium(II) chloride) in the Wacker process. In this process, ethene (ethylene) is converted to ethanal (acetaldehyde) using water and air. In the process PdCl2 is reduced to Pd, and the CuCl2 serves to re-oxidise this back to PdCl2. Air can then oxidise the resultant CuCl back to CuCl2, completing the cycle. (1) C2H4(g) + PdCl2(aq) + H2O (l) → CH3CHO(aq) + Pd(s) (2) Pd(s) + 2 CuCl2See also:

CopperII chloride, CopperII chloride - Chemical Properties, CopperII chloride - Preparation, CopperII chloride - Uses, CopperII chloride - Precautions, CopperII chloride - Suppliers/Manufacturers

Read more here: » CopperII chloride: Encyclopedia II - CopperII chloride - Uses

In the 1930s he began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond, leading to his famous textbook on the subject published in 1939. It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances". Pauling summarized his work on the chemical bond in The Nature of the Chemical Bond, a magnum opus which is probably the most influential chemistry book ever publi ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond

Pauling later traveled to Europe on a Guggenheim Fellowship to study under Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, and Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were working in the new field of quantum mechanics. While he was studying at OAC, Pauling was first exposed to the idea of quantum mechanics. He became interested in seeing how it might help in the understanding of his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Europe, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical ana ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Early scientific career

In the mid-1930s, Pauling decided to strike out into new areas of interest. Early in his career, he had mentioned a lack of interest in studying molecules of biological importance. But as Caltech was developing a new strength in biology, and Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges, and Alfred Sturtevant, he started to become interested in studying biological molecules. His first work in this area involved the structure of hemoglobin. He was able to demonstrate that the hemogl ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules

Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II, but the war changed his life profoundly, and he became a peace activist. During the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project, but he declined saying that he was a pacifist. In 1946 he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein, whose mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons. His political activism prompted the ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Activism

Biodiesel can be obtained from vegetable oil and animal fats (bio-lipids, using transesterification). Biodiesel is a non-fossil fuel alternative to petrodiesel. It can also be mixed with petrodiesel in any amount in modern engines, though it is a strong solvent and can cause problems in some cases. There have been reports that a diesel-biodiesel mix results in lower emissions than either can achieve alone. A small percentage of biodiesel can be used as an additive in low-sulfur formulations of diesel to increase the lubricating ability that ...

See also:

Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Biodiesel

In the late 1950s, Pauling worked on the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. It wasn't until he read "Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry" by Abram Hoffer in 1965 that he realized that vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. Pauling's influential paper, "Orthomolecular Psychiatry", was published in the journal Science in 1968. Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substan ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine

In his senior year he met Ava Helen Miller, a fellow student, and he married her on June 17, 1923; they had three sons and a daughter. In 1922, Pauling graduated from OAC and went to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology ("Caltech") in Pasadena, California. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine crystal structure. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his Ph. D ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Marriage

In 1917, Pauling entered the Oregon Agricultural College (OAC) in Corvallis, now Oregon State University. Because of financial needs, he had to work full-time while attending a full schedule of classes. After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother, but the college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis (a course Pauling had just finished taking as a st ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - College and university

ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T15-T19 Effects of foreign body entering through natural orifice. (T15) Foreign body on external eye (T16) Foreign body in ear (T17) Foreign body in respiratory tract (T18) Foreign body in alimentary tract (T19) Foreign body in genitourinary tract ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T20-T32 Bur ...

See also:

ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S00-T14 - Injury, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S00-S09 head, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S10-S19 neck, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S20-S29 thorax, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S30-S39 abdomen lower back lumbar spine and pelvis, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S40-S49 shoulder and upper arm, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S50-S59 elbow and forearm, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S60-S69 wrist and hand, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S70-S79 hip and thigh, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S80-S89 knee and lower leg, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - S90-S99 ankle and foot, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T00-T07 involving multiple body regions, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T08-T14 unspecified parts of trunk limb or body region, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T15-T98 - Poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T15-T19 Effects of foreign body entering through natural orifice, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T20-T32 Burns and corrosions, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T33-T35 Frostbite, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T36-T50 Poisoning by drugs medicaments and biological substances, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T51-T65 Toxic effects of substances chiefly nonmedicinal as to source, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T66-T78 Other and unspecified effects of external causes, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T79 Certain early complications of trauma, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T80-T88 Complications of surgical and medical care not elsewhere classified, ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T90-T98 Sequelae of injuries of poisoning and of other consequences of external causes

Read more here: » ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes: Encyclopedia II - ICD-10 Chapters S and T: Injury poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes - T15-T98 - Poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes

Copper(II) chloride is prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on copper(II) oxide, copper(II) hydroxide or copper(II) carbonate, for example: CuO(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Anhydrous CuCl2 may be prepared directly by union of the elements, copper and chlorine. CuCl2 may be purified by crystallisation from hot dilute hydrochloric acid, by cooling in a CaCl2-ice bath[7]. CuCl2 is also produced when a penny i ...

See also:

CopperII chloride, CopperII chloride - Chemical Properties, CopperII chloride - Preparation, CopperII chloride - Uses, CopperII chloride - Precautions, CopperII chloride - Suppliers/Manufacturers

Read more here: » CopperII chloride: Encyclopedia II - CopperII chloride - Preparation

The most common fuel worldwide is a kerosene-based fuel classified as JET A-1. JET A-1 is produced to an internationally standardized set of specifications, and has a flash point of 38°C and a freezing point maximum of -47°C. A version of JET A-1 known as JET A is available only in the United States. It is similar, except for its higher freezing point of -40°C. The only other jet fuel that is commonly used in civilian aviation is called JET B. JET B is a fuel in the naptha-kerosene region that is used for its e ...

See also:

Jet fuel, Jet fuel - Modern Fuels, Jet fuel - Jet A, Jet fuel - History of Jet Fuel, Jet fuel - Military Fuels, Jet fuel - Commercial Fuels

Read more here: » Jet fuel: Encyclopedia II - Jet fuel - Modern Fuels

Jet A is the standard jet fuel type in the U.S. since 1950's. Jet A has a fairly high flash point of min. 38°C, with an autoignition temperature of over 425°C. Jet A can be identified in trucks and storage facilities by the fuel code 1863. Jet A trucks, storage tanks and pipes that carry Jet A will be marked with a black sticker with a white "JET A" written over it, next to another black stripe. Jet A will have a clear to straw color if it is clean and free of contamiation. Water is heavier that Jet A, and will collect on the bottom of a t ...

See also:

Jet fuel, Jet fuel - Modern Fuels, Jet fuel - Jet A, Jet fuel - History of Jet Fuel, Jet fuel - Military Fuels, Jet fuel - Commercial Fuels

Read more here: » Jet fuel: Encyclopedia II - Jet fuel - Jet A

Specific Energy Aside from physical or chemical analyses to determine the handling and pollutant profile of a coal, the energy output of a coal is determined using a bomb calorimeter which measures the specific energy output of a coal during complete combustion. This is required particularly for coals used in steam-raising. Ash Fusion Test The behaviour of a coal's ash residue at high temperature is a critical factor in selecting coals for steam power generation. Most furnaces are designed to remove as ...

See also:

Coal assay, Coal assay - Chemical properties of coal, Coal assay - Physical and Mechanical Properties, Coal assay - Special Combustion Tests

Read more here: » Coal assay: Encyclopedia II - Coal assay - Special Combustion Tests

Symptoms that suggest lung cancer include: dyspnea (shortness of breath) hemoptysis (coughing up blood) chronic cough wheezing chest pain cachexia (weight loss), fatigue and loss of appetite dysphonia (hoarse voice) clubbing of the fingernails (uncommon) If the cancer grows into the lumen it may obstruct the airway, causing breathing difficulties. This can lead to accumulation of secretions behind th ...

See also:

Lung cancer, Lung cancer - Signs and symptoms, Lung cancer - Diagnosis, Lung cancer - Types, Lung cancer - Non-small cell lung cancer, Lung cancer - Small cell lung cancer, Lung cancer - Other types, Lung cancer - Metastatic, Lung cancer - Causes, Lung cancer - The role of smoking, Lung cancer - Asbestos, Lung cancer - Radon gas, Lung cancer - Genetics and viruses, Lung cancer - Treatment, Lung cancer - Surgery, Lung cancer - Chemotherapy, Lung cancer - Targeted therapy, Lung cancer - Radiotherapy, Lung cancer - Interventional radiology, Lung cancer - Epidemiology, Lung cancer - Prevention, Lung cancer - Primary prevention, Lung cancer - Screening and secondary prevention

Read more here: » Lung cancer: Encyclopedia II - Lung cancer - Signs and symptoms