aromatic hydrocarbons

In 1855, petroleum cracking methods were pioneered by Chemistry Professor Benjamin Silliman, Jr., of Yale University (then Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University). Silliman, like his father, were Skull and Bones members and both Chemistry Professors at SSS. The first thermal cracking method, the Burton process, was invented by William M. Burton; the oil industry first using it to produce gasoline in 1913. Catalytic cracking, based upon a process developed by Dr. Alex Golden Oblad at Standard Oil of Indiana has been used from around 1936. Typical catalysts include alumina ...

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Cracking chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Applications, Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking, Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking, Cracking chemistry - History

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In 1863, a French chemist isolated a previously unknown hydrocarbon from the pyrolysis of amyl alcohol.[N] This hydrocarbon was identified as butadiene in 1886, after Henry Edward Armstrong isolated it from among the pyrolysis products of petroleum.[N] In 1910, the Russian chemist Sergei Lebedev polymerized butadiene, and obtained a material with rubber-like properties. This polymer was, however, too soft to replace natural rubber in ...

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13-Butadiene, 13-Butadiene - History, 13-Butadiene - Production, 13-Butadiene - From ethanol, 13-Butadiene - Uses, 13-Butadiene - Safety

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The most prominent oxide of carbon is carbon dioxide, CO2. This is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere. In water it forms trace amounts of methanoic acid, HCO2H, but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. ...

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Carbon, Carbon - Notable characteristics, Carbon - Applications, Carbon - Other uses, Carbon - History and Etymology, Carbon - Allotropes, Carbon - Occurrence, Carbon - Organic compounds, Carbon - Carbon chains, Carbon - Carbon cycle, Carbon - Isotopes, Carbon - Precautions

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Most butadiene is polymerized to produce synthetic rubber. While polybutadiene itself is a very soft, almost liquid material, polymers prepared from mixtures of butadiene with styrene or acrylonitrile, such as ABS, are both tough and elastic. Styrene-butadiene rubber is the material most commonly used for the production of automobile tires. Smaller amounts of butadiene are used to make nylon via the intermediate adiponitrile, other synthetic rubber materials such as ch ...

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13-Butadiene, 13-Butadiene - History, 13-Butadiene - Production, 13-Butadiene - From ethanol, 13-Butadiene - Uses, 13-Butadiene - Safety

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Biodiesel can be obtained from vegetable oil and animal fats (bio-lipids, using transesterification). Biodiesel is a non-fossil fuel alternative to petrodiesel. It can also be mixed with petrodiesel in any amount in modern engines, though when first using it , the solvent properties of the fuel tend to clear out all the garbage that has built up from the petrodiesel and can clog fuel filters. Biodiesel has a lower gel point than regular diesel, but is comparable to diesel #2. This can be overcome by using a biodiesel/petrodiesel blend, or by ...

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Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

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Performing a chest X-ray is the first step if a patient reports symptoms that may be suggestive of lung cancer. This may reveal an obvious mass, widening of the mediastinum (suggestive of spread to lymph nodes there), atelectasis (collapse), consolidation (infection) and pleural effusion. If there are no X-ray findings but the suspicion is high (e.g. a heavy smoker with blood-stained sputum), bronchoscopy and/or a CT scan may provide the necessary information. In any case, bronchoscopy or CT-guided biopsy is of ...

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Lung cancer, Lung cancer - Signs and symptoms, Lung cancer - Diagnosis, Lung cancer - Types, Lung cancer - Non-small cell lung cancer, Lung cancer - Small cell lung cancer, Lung cancer - Other types, Lung cancer - Metastatic, Lung cancer - Causes, Lung cancer - The role of smoking, Lung cancer - Asbestos, Lung cancer - Radon gas, Lung cancer - Genetics and viruses, Lung cancer - Treatment, Lung cancer - Surgery, Lung cancer - Chemotherapy, Lung cancer - Targeted therapy, Lung cancer - Radiotherapy, Lung cancer - Interventional radiology, Lung cancer - Epidemiology, Lung cancer - Prevention, Lung cancer - Primary prevention, Lung cancer - Screening and secondary prevention

Read more here: » Lung cancer: Encyclopedia II - Lung cancer - Diagnosis

Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known to the ancients, who manufactured it by burning organic material in insufficient oxygen (making charcoal). Diamonds have long been considered rare and beautiful. One of the last-known allotropes of carbon, fullerenes, were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980s. The name comes from French charbone, which in turn came from Latin carbo, meaning charcoal. In German and Dutch, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff and koolstof re ...

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Carbon, Carbon - Notable characteristics, Carbon - Applications, Carbon - Other uses, Carbon - History and Etymology, Carbon - Allotropes, Carbon - Occurrence, Carbon - Organic compounds, Carbon - Carbon chains, Carbon - Carbon cycle, Carbon - Isotopes, Carbon - Precautions

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Carbon is a vital component of all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see alternative biochemistry). The major economic use of carbon is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuels methane gas and crude oil (petroleum). Crude oil is used by the petrochemical industry to produce, amongst others, gasoline and kerosene, through a distillation process, in refineries. Crude oil forms the raw material for many synthetic substances, many of ...

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Carbon, Carbon - Notable characteristics, Carbon - Applications, Carbon - Other uses, Carbon - History and Etymology, Carbon - Allotropes, Carbon - Occurrence, Carbon - Organic compounds, Carbon - Carbon chains, Carbon - Carbon cycle, Carbon - Isotopes, Carbon - Precautions

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Bad quality (high sulfur) diesel fuel has been used as a palladium extraction agent for the liquid-liquid extraction of this metal from nitric acid mixtures. This has been proposed as a means of separating the fission product palladium from PUREX raffinate which comes from used nuclear fuel. In this solvent extraction system the hydrocarbons of the diesel act as the diluent while the dialkyl sulfides act as the extractant. This extraction operates by a solvation mechanism. So far neither a pilot plant or full scale plant has been constructed to recover palladium, rhodium or ruthenium from nuclear waste ...

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Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Other uses

Diesel fuel is very similar to heating oil which is used in central heating. In Europe, the United States and Canada, taxes on diesel fuel are higher than on heating oil due to the fuel tax, and in those areas, heating oil is marked with fuel dyes and trace chemicals to prevent and detect tax fraud. Similarly, "untaxed" diesel is available in the United States, which is available for use primarily in agricultural applications such as for tractor fuel. This untaxed diesel is also dyed red for identification purposes, and should a person be fo ...

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Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

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The allotropes of carbon are the different molecular configurations that pure carbon can take. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Several exotic allotropes have also been synthesized or discovered, including fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, lonsdaleite and aggregated diamond nanorods. In its amorphous form, carbon is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is, rather, present as a powder which is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal, la ...

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Carbon, Carbon - Notable characteristics, Carbon - Applications, Carbon - Other uses, Carbon - History and Etymology, Carbon - Allotropes, Carbon - Occurrence, Carbon - Organic compounds, Carbon - Carbon chains, Carbon - Carbon cycle, Carbon - Isotopes, Carbon - Precautions

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Pauling's contribution to science is held in the utmost regard. He was included in a list of the 20 greatest scientists of all time by the British magazine New Scientist, with Albert Einstein being the only other scientist from the twentieth century on the list. The author of the Millennium Essay in Nature (408: 407, 2000) claimed that Pauling was one of the greatest thinkers and visionaries of the millennium, along with Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. Pauling is also notable for the diversity of his interests: quantum mechanics, inorganic ch ...

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Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

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Biodiesel is a clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to petrodiesel, the industry term for diesel produced from petroleum. It can be used as an additive in formulations of diesel to increase the lubricity of pure ultra-low sulfur petrodiesel (ULSD) fuel. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix, in contrast to the "BA" system used for bioalcohol mixes. For example, 20% biodiesel is labeled B20. Pure biodiesel, 100%, is referred to as B100.< ...

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Biodiesel, Biodiesel - History, Biodiesel - Fuel quality standards and properties, Biodiesel - Production, Biodiesel - Base oils, Biodiesel - Efficiency and economic arguments, Biodiesel - Availability, Biodiesel - Australia, Biodiesel - Brazil, Biodiesel - Belgium, Biodiesel - Canada, Biodiesel - Germany, Biodiesel - India, Biodiesel - United States

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Transesterification of a vegetable oil was conducted as early as 1853, by scientists E. Duffy and J. Patrick, many years before the first diesel engine became functional. Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10 ft (3 m) iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany on August 10, 1893. In remembrance of this event, August 10 has been declared International Biodiesel Day. Diesel later demonstrated his engine and received the "Grand Prix" (highest prize) at the World Fair in Pari ...

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Biodiesel, Biodiesel - History, Biodiesel - Fuel quality standards and properties, Biodiesel - Production, Biodiesel - Base oils, Biodiesel - Efficiency and economic arguments, Biodiesel - Availability, Biodiesel - Australia, Biodiesel - Brazil, Biodiesel - Belgium, Biodiesel - Canada, Biodiesel - Germany, Biodiesel - India, Biodiesel - United States

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"Cracking" breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermic or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism, that is, bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of free radicals are formed. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites) which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion. Carbon-loc ...

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Cracking chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Applications, Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking, Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking, Cracking chemistry - History

Read more here: » Cracking chemistry: Encyclopedia II - Cracking chemistry - Chemistry

Biodiesel - Australia. With around 100 million litres (26.5 million US Gallons) annual production capacity, commercial biodiesel production is still in its relative infancy in Australia. However many new production plants are being built around the nation. The future growth of the biodiesel industry in Australia is limited by feedstock availability and also by the relatively low price of petroleum diesel fuel. Many city and regional councils are already using B20. All of the public transport trains and most of the public transport buses in Adelaide, South Australia have been ...

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Biodiesel, Biodiesel - History, Biodiesel - Fuel quality standards and properties, Biodiesel - Production, Biodiesel - Base oils, Biodiesel - Efficiency and economic arguments, Biodiesel - Availability, Biodiesel - Australia, Biodiesel - Brazil, Biodiesel - Belgium, Biodiesel - Canada, Biodiesel - Germany, Biodiesel - India, Biodiesel - United States

Read more here: » Biodiesel: Encyclopedia II - Biodiesel - Availability

The number of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons can be determined, if the number of carbon atoms is known, by using these following equations: Alkanes: CnH2n+2 Alkenes: CnH2n (assuming only one double bond) Alkynes: CnH2n-2 (assuming only one triple bond) Each of these hydrocarbons must follow the 4-hydrogen rule which states that all carbon atoms must have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms ...

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Hydrocarbon, Hydrocarbon - Examples, Hydrocarbon - Three types of hydrocarbons, Hydrocarbon - The number of hydrogen atoms, Hydrocarbon - Molecular graph, Hydrocarbon - Petroleum, Hydrocarbon - Burning Hydrocarbons

Read more here: » Hydrocarbon: Encyclopedia II - Hydrocarbon - The number of hydrogen atoms

In the laboratory, ethane may be conveniently prepared by Koble electrolyis. In this technique, an aqueous solution of an acetate salt is electrolysed. At the anode, acetate oxidize to produce carbon dioxide and methyl radicals, and the highly reactive methyl radicals combine to produce ethane: CH3COO− → CH3• + CO2 + e− CH3• + •CH3 → C2H6 Another method, the oxidation of acetic anhydride b ...

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Ethane, Ethane - History, Ethane - Chemistry, Ethane - Ocurrence and use, Ethane - Extraterrestrial ethane

Read more here: » Ethane: Encyclopedia II - Ethane - Chemistry

Gasoline - Pharmaceutical. Before internal combustion engines were invented in the mid-1800s, gasoline was sold in small bottles as a treatment against lice and their eggs. In those early times, the word "Petrol" was a trade name. This treatment method is no longer common, due to the inherent fire hazard and risk of dermatitis and that gasoline is a carcinogen where continued contact might develop cancerous growths. The word petrol may be derived from Old French pétrole, meaning petroleum: see Etymology. Petrol is also abused as a psychoactive inhalant. See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

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Gasoline - Lead. The mixture known as gasoline when used in high compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to explode early ( pre-ignition pre-detonation) causing a damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging") noise. Early research into this effect was led by A.H. Gibson and Harry Ricardo in England and Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd in the United States. The discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of the practice in the 1920s and hence ...

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Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia II - Gasoline - Additives

Bad quaility (high sulfur) diesel fuel has been used as a palladium extraction agent for the liquid-liquid extraction of this metal from nitric acid mixtures. This has been proposed as a means of separating the Fission product palladium from PUREX raffinate which comes from used nuclear fuel. In this solvent extraction system the hydrocarbons of the diesel act as the diluent while the dialkyl sulfides avt as the extractant. This extraction operates by a solvation mechanism, so far neither a pilot or full scale plant has been constructed to recover palladium, rhodium or ruthenium from waste ...

See also:

Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Other uses

Diesel fuel is very similar to heating oil which is used in central heating. In both Europe and the United States, taxes on diesel fuel are higher than on heating oil, and in those areas, heating oil is marked with dye and trace chemicals to prevent and detect tax fraud. Similarly, "untaxed" diesel is available in the United States, which is available for use primarily in agricultural applications such as for tractor fuel. This untaxed diesel is also dyed red for identification purposes, and should a person be found to be using this untaxed ...

See also:

Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Uses