Coal comes in four main types or ranks: lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal or black coal, anthracite and graphite. Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons) and carbon content. Moisture Moisture is an important proerty of coal, as all coals are mined wet. Groundwater and other extraneous moisture is known as adventitious moisture and is readily evaporated. Moisture held within the c ...

See also:

Coal assay, Coal assay - Chemical properties of coal, Coal assay - Physical and Mechanical Properties, Coal assay - Special Combustion Tests

Read more here: » Coal assay: Encyclopedia II - Coal assay - Chemical properties of coal

Biodiesel is fuel made from renewable resources such as vegetable oils or animal fats. It is biodegradable and non-toxic, and has significantly fewer emissions than petroleum-based diesel (petro-diesel) when burned. Biodiesel functions in current diesel engines, and is a possible candidate to replace fossil fuels as the world's primary transport energy source. With a flash point of 150 °C, Biodiesel is classified as a non-flammable liquid by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. This property makes a vehicle fuele ...

Including:

• Biodiesel - History
• Biodiesel - Fuel quality standards and properties
• Biodiesel - Production
• Biodiesel - Base oils
• Biodiesel - Efficiency and economic arguments
• Biodiesel - Availability
• Biodiesel - Australia
• Biodiesel - Brazil
• Biodiesel - Belgium
• Biodiesel - Canada
• Biodiesel - Germany
• Biodiesel - India
• Biodiesel - United States

Read more here: » Biodiesel: Encyclopedia - Biodiesel

Alkylation is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another. In a standard oil refinery process, alkylation combines low-molecular-weight olefins (primarily a mixture of propylene and butylene) with isobutane in the presence of a catalyst, either sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid. The product is called alkylate and is composed of a mixture of high-octane, branched-chain paraffinic hydrocarbons. Alkylate is a premium gasoline blending stock because it has exceptional antiknock properties and is clean burning. The ...

Read more here: » Alkylation: Encyclopedia - Alkylation

Gasoline is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production. Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. These days, material that is simply separated from crude oil via distillation, called natural gasoline, will not meet the required specifications (in particular octane rating; see below) for modern engines, but these streams will form part of the blend. The bulk of a typical gasoline consi ...

Including:

• Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production
• Gasoline - Volatility
• Gasoline - Octane rating
• Gasoline - Dangers
• Gasoline - Energy content
• Gasoline - Additives
• Gasoline - Lead
• Gasoline - MMT
• Gasoline - Oxygenate blending
• Gasoline - History
• Gasoline - Pharmaceutical
• Gasoline - Etymology
• Gasoline - World War II and octane
• Gasoline - Current use
• Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia - Gasoline

Diesel or Diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of fuel oil (mostly petroleum) that is used as fuel in a diesel engine invented by German engineer Rudolf Diesel. The term typically refers to fuel that has been processed from petroleum, but increasingly, alternatives such as biodiesel or biomass to liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel that are not derived from petroleum are being developed. Diesel - Petroleum diesel. Diesel is produced from petroleum, and is sometimes called petrodi ...

Including:

• Diesel - Petroleum diesel
• Diesel - Chemical composition
• Diesel - Synthetic diesel
• Diesel - Biodiesel
• Diesel - Uses
• Diesel - Other uses
• Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia - Diesel

Acid gas or Sour gas, also sour acid gas or acid sour gas, is natural gas which contains up to 20% hydrogen sulfide contaminant by weight. It may also contain the aromatic hydrocarbons benzene, toluene, mixed xylenes and ethylbenzene. See natural gas condensate. Due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide, acid gas is toxic. Before this type of natural gas can be used, the acid gas is treated to remove the hydrogen sulfide, producing elemental sulphur as a by ...

Read more here: » Acid gas: Encyclopedia - Acid gas

In petroleum geology and chemistry, cracking is the process whereby complex organic molecules (e.g. kerogens or heavy hydrocarbons) are converted to simpler molecules (e.g. light hydrocarbons) by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the temperature and presence of any catalysts. Cracking chemistry - Applications. In an oil refinery cracking processes allow the production of "light" products (such as LPG and gasoline) from ...

Including:

• Cracking chemistry - Applications
• Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking
• Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - Chemistry
• Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - History

Read more here: » Cracking chemistry: Encyclopedia - Cracking chemistry

Carbon is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol C and atomic number 6. An abundant nonmetallic, tetravalent element, carbon has several allotropic forms: Diamond (hardest known natural mineral). Structure: each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, making a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Graphite (one of the softest substances). Structure: each atom is bonded trigonally to three other atoms, making a 2-dimensional network of flat s ...

Including:

• Carbon - Notable characteristics
• Carbon - Applications
• Carbon - Other uses
• Carbon - History and Etymology
• Carbon - Allotropes
• Carbon - Occurrence
• Carbon - Organic compounds
• Carbon - Carbon chains
• Carbon - Carbon cycle
• Carbon - Isotopes
• Carbon - Precautions

Read more here: » Carbon: Encyclopedia - Carbon

Copper(II) chloride is the higher chloride of copper, with the formula CuCl2. It occurs naturally as the mineral eriochalcite. It is a brown solid which slowly absorbs moisture to form a blue-green dihydrate. It is ionic and highly soluble in water. Chemically it behaves as a weak Lewis acid, and under certain conditions it can act as a mild oxidising agent. It has a crystal structure consisting of polymeric chains of flat CuCl4 units with opposite edges shared. It decomposes to CuCl and Cl2 at ...

Including:

• CopperII chloride - Chemical Properties
• CopperII chloride - Preparation
• CopperII chloride - Uses
• CopperII chloride - Precautions
• CopperII chloride - Suppliers/Manufacturers

Read more here: » CopperII chloride: Encyclopedia - CopperII chloride

Creosote is the name used for a variety of products: wood creosote, coal tar creosote, coal tar, coal tar pitch, and coal tar pitch volatiles. These products are mixtures of many chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (known as PAHs), phenol, and cresols created by high temperature treatment of beech and other woods, coal, or from the resin of the Creosote bush. Wood creosote is a colorless to yellowish greasy liquid with a smoky odor a ...

Including:

• Creosote - Health effects

Read more here: » Creosote: Encyclopedia - Creosote

Coal assay techniques are specific analytical methods designed to measure the particlar physical and chemical properties of coals. These methods are used primarily to determine the suitability of coal for coking, power generation or for iron ore smelting in the manufacture of steel. Coal assay - Chemical properties of coal. Coal comes in four main types or ranks: lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal or black coal, anthracite and graphite. Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which ar ...

Including:

• Coal assay - Chemical properties of coal
• Coal assay - Physical and Mechanical Properties
• Coal assay - Special Combustion Tests

Read more here: » Coal assay: Encyclopedia - Coal assay

Chloracne is an acne-like eruption of blackheads, cysts, and pustules associated with over-exposure to certain halogenic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as chlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans. The lesions are most frequently found on the cheeks, behind the ears, in the armpits and groin region. The condition was first described in German industrial workers in 1897 by Von Bettman, and was initially believed to be caused by exposure to toxic chlorine (hence the name "chloracne"). It was only in the mid-1950s that chloracne was associated with aromatic hydrocarbons[1]. The substances that may cause chloracn ...

Including:

• Chloracne - Etiology and progression
• Chloracne - Treatment
• Chloracne - Related conditions
• Chloracne - Notable cases

Read more here: » Chloracne: Encyclopedia - Chloracne

Hydrocarbons are one of Earth's most important natural resources. Hydrocarbons are currently the main source of the world’s electric energy and heat sources (such as home heating) because of the energy produced when burnt. Hydrocarbons are all substances with low entropy (meaning they hold a lot of energy potential), which can be released and harnessed by burning them. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either oil or natural gas. The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat is used to heat water, which i ...

See also:

Hydrocarbon, Hydrocarbon - Examples, Hydrocarbon - Three types of hydrocarbons, Hydrocarbon - The number of hydrogen atoms, Hydrocarbon - Molecular graph, Hydrocarbon - Petroleum, Hydrocarbon - Burning Hydrocarbons

Read more here: » Hydrocarbon: Encyclopedia II - Hydrocarbon - Burning Hydrocarbons

After methane, ethane is the second-largest component of natural gas. Natural gas from different gas fields varies in ethane content from less than 1% to over 6% by volume. Prior to the 1960s, ethane was typically not separated from the methane component of natural gas, but simply burnt along with the methane as a fuel. Today, however, ethane is an important petrochemical feedstock, and ethane is separated from the other components of natural gas in most well-developed gas fields. Ethane and heavier hydrocarbons can be separated from ...

See also:

Ethane, Ethane - History, Ethane - Chemistry, Ethane - Ocurrence and use, Ethane - Extraterrestrial ethane

Read more here: » Ethane: Encyclopedia II - Ethane - Ocurrence and use

Main article: Biodiesel production Chemically, biodiesel comprises a mix of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids. The most common form uses methanol to produce methyl esters as it is the cheapest alcohol available, though ethanol can be used to produce an ethyl ester biodiesel and higher alcohols such as isopropanol and butanol have also been used. Using alcohols of higher molecular weights improves the cold flow properties of the resulting ester, at the cost of a less efficient transesterification reaction. A byproduct ...

See also:

Biodiesel, Biodiesel - History, Biodiesel - Fuel quality standards and properties, Biodiesel - Production, Biodiesel - Base oils, Biodiesel - Efficiency and economic arguments, Biodiesel - Availability, Biodiesel - Australia, Biodiesel - Brazil, Biodiesel - Belgium, Biodiesel - Canada, Biodiesel - Germany, Biodiesel - India, Biodiesel - United States

Read more here: » Biodiesel: Encyclopedia II - Biodiesel - Production

In the United States, western Europe, and Japan, butadiene is produced as a byproduct of the steam cracking process used to produce ethylene and other olefins. When mixed with steam and briefly heated to very high temperatures (often over 900 °C), aliphatic hydrocarbons give up hydrogen to produce a complex mixture of unsaturated hydrocarbons, including butadiene. The quantity of butadiene produced depends on the hydrocarbons used as feed. Light feeds, such as ethane, give primarily ethylene when cracked, but heavier favor the formation of heavier ole ...

See also:

13-Butadiene, 13-Butadiene - History, 13-Butadiene - Production, 13-Butadiene - From ethanol, 13-Butadiene - Uses, 13-Butadiene - Safety

Read more here: » 13-Butadiene: Encyclopedia II - 13-Butadiene - Production

Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. These days, material that is simply separated from crude oil via distillation, called natural gasoline, will not meet the required specifications (in particular octane rating; see below) for modern engines, but these streams will form part of the blend. The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 5 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule. The various refinery streams that are blended together to make gasoline all have different characteristics. Some important streams are ...

See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia II - Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production

Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon to Herman Henry William Pauling (1876-1910) of Concordia, Missouri; and Lucy Isabelle Darling (1881-1926) of Lonerock, Oregon. Herman was an unsuccessful druggist who moved his family to and from a number of different cities in Oregon from 1903 to 1909, finally returning to Portland that year. Herman died in 1910 of a perforated ulcer, and Isabelle was left to care for Linus and two younger siblings: Pauline Pauling (1901-1986) who married Thomas Joseph Ney (1881-1963) of Millville, New J ...

See also:

Linus Pauling, Linus Pauling - Early life, Linus Pauling - College and university, Linus Pauling - Marriage, Linus Pauling - Early scientific career, Linus Pauling - Work on the nature of the chemical bond, Linus Pauling - Work on biological molecules, Linus Pauling - Activism, Linus Pauling - Work in the development of the electric car, Linus Pauling - Work in alternative medicine, Linus Pauling - Pauling's legacy, Linus Pauling - Trivia, Linus Pauling - Works by Linus Pauling

Read more here: » Linus Pauling: Encyclopedia II - Linus Pauling - Early life

Various co-solvents are added to the primary active ingredient. These assist with penetration into the paint and its removal and differ according to the target paint. Ethanol is suitable for shellac, methyl ethyl ketone is used for cellulose nitrate, and phenol and cresols are employed in some industrial formulas. Benzyl alcohol is used as well. Activators increase the penetration rate; for dichloromethane water is suitable, other choices are amines, strong acids or strong alkalines. Activator role is to disrupt the molecular and inte ...

See also:

Paint stripper, Paint stripper - Other components, Paint stripper - Alternatives

Read more here: » Paint stripper: Encyclopedia II - Paint stripper - Other components

Exposure to carcinogens, such as those present in tobacco smoke, immediately causes cumulative changes to the tissue lining the bronchi of the lungs (the bronchial mucous membrane) and more tissue gets damaged until a tumour develops. There are four major causes of lung cancer (and, actually, cancer in general): Carcinogens such as those in cigarette smoke Radiation exposure Genetic susceptibility Viral infection Lun ...

See also:

Lung cancer, Lung cancer - Signs and symptoms, Lung cancer - Diagnosis, Lung cancer - Types, Lung cancer - Non-small cell lung cancer, Lung cancer - Small cell lung cancer, Lung cancer - Other types, Lung cancer - Metastatic, Lung cancer - Causes, Lung cancer - The role of smoking, Lung cancer - Asbestos, Lung cancer - Radon gas, Lung cancer - Genetics and viruses, Lung cancer - Treatment, Lung cancer - Surgery, Lung cancer - Chemotherapy, Lung cancer - Targeted therapy, Lung cancer - Radiotherapy, Lung cancer - Interventional radiology, Lung cancer - Epidemiology, Lung cancer - Prevention, Lung cancer - Primary prevention, Lung cancer - Screening and secondary prevention

Read more here: » Lung cancer: Encyclopedia II - Lung cancer - Causes