Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Epistemology
Aristotle - Logic. Main article: Aristotelian logic For more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic. Aristotle "says th...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Epistemology
Aristotle - Logic. Main article: Aristotelian logic For more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic. Aristotle "says th...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Epistemology
Aristotle - Logic. Main article: Aristotelian logic For more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic. Aristotle "says th...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia - Aristotle
Aristotle (Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, student of Plato and ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia - Causality
The philosophical concept of causality or causation refers to the set of all particular "causal" or "cause-and-effect" relations. A neutr...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Category Of Being: Encyclopedia - Category Of Being
In metaphysics (in particular, ontology), the different kinds or ways of being are called categories of being or simply categories. Accor...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Organon: Encyclopedia - Organon
The Organon is the name given by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics, for the standard collection of six of his works on logic. The s...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Alfred Tarski: Encyclopedia - Alfred Tarski
Alfred Tarski (January 14, 1901 in Warsaw – October 26, 1983 in Berkeley, USA) was a Polish mathematician, and widely considered one of...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Contradiction: Encyclopedia - Contradiction
Broadly speaking, a contradiction is an incompatibility between two or more statements, ideas, or actions. One must, it seems, reject at ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Law Of Noncontradiction: Encyclopedia - Law Of Noncontradiction
In logic, the law of noncontradiction judges as false any proposition P asserting that both proposition Q and its denial, proposition not...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Classical Logic: Encyclopedia - Classical Logic
Classical logic identifies a class of formal logics that have been most intensively studied and most widely used. They are characterised ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Logic: Encyclopedia - Logic
Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Ja'far Ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar Al-balkhi: Encyclopedia - Ja'far Ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar Al-balkhi
Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (787 - 886), known as Albumasar, was a Persian astronomer and mathematician from Balkh, in toda...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - De Morgan's Laws: Encyclopedia - De Morgan's Laws
In logic, De Morgan's laws (or De Morgan's theorem) are rules in formal logic relating pairs of dual logical operators in a systematic ma...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - The Proposition
In term logic, a "proposition" is simply a form of language: a particular kind of sentence, in which the subject and predicate are combin...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - Singular Terms
The distinction between singular and universal is fundamental to Aristotle's metaphysics, and not merely grammatical. A singular term for...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - The Term
A term (Greek horos) is the basic component of the proposition. The original meaning of the horos and also the Latin terminus is "extreme...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - The Term
A term (Greek horos) is the basic component of the proposition. The original meaning of the horos and also the Latin terminus is "extreme...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - The Syllogism
There can only be three terms in the syllogism, since the two terms in the conclusion are already in the premises, and one term is common...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - The Basics
The fundamental assumption behind the theory is that propositions are composed of two terms - whence the name "two-term theory" or "term ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - The Syllogism
There can only be three terms in the syllogism, since the two terms in the conclusion are already in the premises, and one term is common...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - Decline Of Term Logic
Term logic dominated logic throughout most of its history until the advent of modern or predicate logic a century ago, in the late ninete...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Causality Contrasted With Logical Implication
Logical conditional statements are not statements of causality. Since logical conditional statements and causal statements are both prese...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Causation In The History Of Philosophy
Causality - Aristotle. Aristotle suggested four types of cause for a thing that exists: Material, Efficient, Final and Formal. Take for...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Necessary And Sufficient Causes
Causes are often distinguished into two types: necessary and sufficient. If x is a necessary cause of y, then y will only occur if preced...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Causality In Science And The Humanities
Using the Scientific method, scientists set up experiments to determine causality in the physical world. Certain elemental forces such as...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Process Theories
Some theorists are interested in distinguishing between causal processes and non-causal processes (Russell 1948; Salmon 1984). These theo...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Manipulation Theories
Some theorists have equated causality with manipulability (Collingwood 1940; Gasking 1955; Menzies and Price 1993; von Wright 1971). Unde...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Causality In Psychology
The above theories are attempts to define a reflectively stable notion of causality. This process uses our standard causal intuitions to ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Causation In Religion And Theology
Causality - Cosmological argument. One of the classic arguments for the existence of God is known as the "Cosmological argument" or "Fi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Probabilistic Causation
Interpreting causation as a deterministic relation means that if A causes B, then A must always be followed by B. In this sense, war does...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causality: Encyclopedia Ii - Causality - Counterfactual Theories Of Causation
The philosopher David Lewis notably suggested that all statements about causality can be understood as counterfactual statements (Lewis 1...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Logic - Logic In Greece
In Greece, two main competing logical traditions emerged. Stoic logic traced its roots back to Euclid of Megara, a pupil of Socrates, and...   » Read the article

Dictionary - Aristotle: Hindu - Hinduism Dictionary On Aristotle
Aristotle: Greek philosopher (384322 bce) who left a profound legacy of writings on metaphysics, ethics, logic and law. A disciple of ...   » Read the article

Dictionary - Aristotle: Hindu - Hinduism Dictionary On Aristotle
Aristotle: Greek philosopher (384322 bce) who left a profound legacy of writings on metaphysics, ethics, logic and law. A disciple of Pl...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - Development Of Modal Logic
Although Aristotle's logic is almost entirely concerned with the theory of the categorical syllogism, his work also contains some extende...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Logic - Logic In Islamic Philosophy
For after Muhammed's death, Islamic law placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to ar...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Reason: Encyclopedia Ii - Reason - Reason And Logic
The debate about the relationship of reason to logic extends back to the time of Plato and Aristotle. Plato made a distinction between re...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Mathematical Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Mathematical Logic - History
Mathematical logic was the name given by Giuseppe Peano to what is also known as symbolic logic. In essentials, it is still the logic of ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - Development Of Modal Logic
Although Aristotle's logic is almost entirely concerned with the theory of the categorical syllogism, his work also contains some extende...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Category Of Being: Encyclopedia Ii - Category Of Being - Categories Of Being
Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are. In no particular order, here are at least some it...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Organon: Encyclopedia Ii - Organon - The Influence Of The Organon
Aristotle's works on logic, (collectively called the Organon), are the only significant works of Aristotle that were never "lost"; all hi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Multi-valued Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Multi-valued Logic - History
The first known logician who didn't fully accept the law of the excluded middle was Aristotle (De Interpretatione, ch. IX), though he did...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Gottlob Frege: Encyclopedia Ii - Gottlob Frege - Logician
Frege is widely regarded as a very great logician, on par with Aristotle, Kurt Gödel, and Alfred Tarski. His revolutionary Begriffsschri...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Appeal To Authority: Encyclopedia Ii - Appeal To Authority - Discussion
In the Middle Ages, roughly from the 12th century to the 15th century, the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established dogma, and u...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Category Of Being: Encyclopedia Ii - Category Of Being - Other Systems Of Categories
In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant proposed the following system: Quantity Unity Plurality Totality Quality Reality Negation Limit...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - De Morgan's Laws: Encyclopedia Ii - De Morgan's Laws - History And Formulations
Augustus De Morgan originally observed that in classical propositional logic the following relationships hold: not (P and Q) = (not P) o...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Category Of Being: Encyclopedia Ii - Category Of Being - Categories Of Being
Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are. In no particular order, here are at least some it...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Term Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Term Logic - Revisionist Logic
The innovation of predicate logic led to an almost complete abandonment of the traditional system. It is customary to revile or disparage...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Defeasible Reasoning: Encyclopedia Ii - Defeasible Reasoning - Origins In Philosophy
Though Aristotle differentiated the forms of reasoning that are valid for logic and philosophy from the more general ones that are used i...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Albertus Magnus: Encyclopedia Ii - Albertus Magnus - Writings
Albertus's writings collected in 1899 went to 38 volumes, displaying his prolific habits and literally encyclopedic knowledge of topics i...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Inference: Encyclopedia Ii - Valid Inferences
Inferences are either valid or invalid, but not both. Philosophical logic has attempted to define the rules of proper inference, i.e. the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Inference: Encyclopedia Ii - Inference - Valid Inferences
Inferences are either valid or invalid, but not both. Philosophical logic has attempted to define the rules of proper inference, i.e. the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Organon: Encyclopedia Ii - Organon - Constitution Of The Texts
The order of the works is not chronological (which is now hard to determine), but was deliberately chosen by the Peripatetics to constitu...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius: Encyclopedia Ii - Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius - Works
Boethius's most recognized work is the Consolation of Philosophy, which he wrote in prison in Pavia while awaiting his execution. Boëthi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Hegelianism: Encyclopedia Ii - Hegelianism - Doctrine Of Development
In logic---which really is a metaphysic---we have to deal with the process of development applied to reality in its most abstract form. F...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Duns Scotus: Encyclopedia Ii - Duns Scotus - Logic
Scotus was perhaps one of the most influential medieval logicians, in the ranks of Peter Abelard and William of Ockham. He was the one of...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Saul Kripke: Encyclopedia Ii - Saul Kripke - Naming And Necessity
Kripke's three lectures constitute an attack on the descriptivist (Fregean, Russellian) theory of reference with respect to proper names,...   » Read the article

Dictionary - Aristotle: Spiritual - Theosophy Dictionary On Aristotle
Aristotle (384-322 BC) One of the two most influential Greek philosophers, he studied under Plato, tutored Alexander the Great (c. 342...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Al-farabi: Encyclopedia Ii - Al-farabi - Contributions
Farabi made notable contributions to the fields of mathematics, philosophy, medicine and even music. As a philosopher and Neo-Platonist h...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Western Philosophy Russell: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Western Philosophy Russell - Structure
History of Western Philosophy is divided into three books, subdivided into sections and chapters - usually, each chapter deals with a sin...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Categorical Syllogism: Encyclopedia Ii - Categorical Syllogism - List Of Syllogisms
The following is a list of fourteen syllogisms whose names were given to them during the middle ages, but which are all based on Aristotl...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Causal Theory Of Reference: Encyclopedia Ii - Causal Theory Of Reference - Motivation
Causal theories of reference were born partially in response to the widespread acceptance of Russellian descriptive theories. Russell fou...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Fallacy: Encyclopedia Ii - Fallacy - Aristotelian Fallacies
Fallacy - Material fallacies. The classification of material fallacies widely adopted by modern logicians and based on that of Aristotl...   » Read the article

Dictionary - Hermeticism: Mysticism Magick Dictionary On Hermeticism
HERMETICISM (From Hermes Trismegistus.) The Hermetic sciences are Astrology, Magic, Qabalah and (ultimately) Egyptology. Hermetic phil...   » Read the article

Dictionary - Universals: Spiritual - Theosophy Dictionary On Universals
Universals A philosophical and logical term, used in opposition to particulars. For example, matter may be called a universal, and mat...   » Read the article

Dictionary - Inductive Method, Induction: Spiritual - Theosophy Dictionary On Inductive Method, Induction
Inductive Method, Induction In logic, the process of reasoning from the parts to the whole, from the particular to the general, or fro...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Logic - Nature Of Logic
Because of its fundamental role in philosophy, the nature of logic has been the object of intense dispute: it is not possible clearly to ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Mathematical Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Mathematical Logic - Topics In Mathematical Logic
The main areas of mathematical logic include model theory, proof theory and recursion theory (often now referred to as computability theo...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Logic - Nature Of Logic
Because of its fundamental role in philosophy, the nature of logic has been the object of intense disputation; and it is not possible to ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Logic - Traditional Logic
"Traditional Logic" generally means the textbook tradition that begins with Antoine Arnauld and Nicole's Logic, or the Art of Thinking, b...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - Interpretations Of Modal Logic
In the most common interpretation of modal logic, one considers "all logically possible worlds". If a statement is true in all possible w...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Logic - Topics In Logic
Throughout history, there has been interest in distinguishing good from bad arguments, and so logic has been studied in some more or less...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - Interpretations Of Modal Logic
In the most common interpretation of modal logic, one considers "all logically possible worlds". If a statement is true in all possible w...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Logic - Medieval Logic
"Medieval Logic" (also known as "Scholastic Logic") generally means the form of Aristotelian logic developed in medieval Occident through...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Logic - Controversies In Logic
Just as we have seen there is disagreement over what logic is about, so there is disagreement about what logical truths there are. Logic...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - A Note About Intensionality Of Modal Logics
Some people argue that modal logics are characterized by semantic intensionality: the truth value of a complex formula cannot be determin...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Averroes: Encyclopedia Ii - Averroes - Significance
Averroes is most famous for his translations and commentaries of Aristotle's works, which had been mostly forgotten in the West. Before 1...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Logic - The Advent Of Modern Logic
Historically, Descartes, may have been the first philosopher to have had the idea of using algebra, especially its techniques for solving...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - Formal Rules
There are many modal logics, with many different properties. In many of them the concepts of necessity and possibility satisfy the follow...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Modal Logic: Encyclopedia Ii - Modal Logic - Formal Rules
There are many modal logics, with many different properties. In many of them the concepts of necessity and possibility satisfy the follow...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Biography
Aristotle - Early life and studies at the Academy. Aristotle was born at Stageira, a colony of Andros on the Macedonian peninsula of Ch...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Biography
Aristotle - Early life and studies at the Academy. Aristotle was born at Stageira, a colony of Andros on the Macedonian peninsula of Ch...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Biography
Aristotle - Early life and studies at the Academy. Aristotle was born at Stageira, a colony of Andros on the Macedonian peninsula of Ch...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Ethics
Although Aristotle wrote several works on ethics, the major one was the Nicomachean Ethics, which is considered one of Aristotle's greate...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Critics
Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds. His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presuppose...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Bibliography
Note: Bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available. Aristotle - M...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Metaphysics
Aristotle - Aristotle's four causes. Aristotle names four "causes" of things, but the word cause (Greek: αἰτἱα, aitia) is not us...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Methodology
Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Ethics
Although Aristotle wrote several works on ethics, the major one was the Nicomachean Ethics, which is considered one of Aristotle's greate...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Critics
Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds. His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presuppose...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Ethics
Although Aristotle wrote several works on ethics, the major one was the Nicomachean Ethics, which is considered one of Aristotle's greate...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Critics
Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds. His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presuppose...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Bibliography
Note: Bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available. Aristotle - M...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Metaphysics
Aristotle - Aristotle's four causes. Aristotle names four "causes" of things, but the word cause (Greek: αἰτἱα, aitia) is not us...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Bibliography
Note: Bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available. Aristotle - M...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Methodology
Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Aristotle's Metaphysics
Aristotle - Aristotle's four causes. Aristotle names four "causes" of things, but the word cause (Greek: αἰτἱα, aitia) is not us...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - Methodology
Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Aristotle: Encyclopedia Ii - Aristotle - The Loss Of His Works
Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have...   » Read the article