The proton gradient can be used as an intermediate energy storage for heat production and flagellar rotation. Additionally it is an interconvertible form of energy in active transport, electron potential generation, NADPH synthesis and ATP synthesis/hydrolysis. The electrochemical potential difference between the two sides of the membrane in mitochondria, chloroplasts, bacteria and other membranous compartments that engage in active transport involving proton pumps, is at times called a chemiosmotic potential or < ...

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Electrochemical gradient, Electrochemical gradient - General overview, Electrochemical gradient - Chemistry, Electrochemical gradient - Biological context, Electrochemical gradient - Ion gradients, Electrochemical gradient - Proton gradients

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Cell biology - Properties of cells. Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities. All cells share several abilities: Reproduction by cell division. Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components, creating energy, molecules and rel ...

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Cell biology, Cell biology - Overview, Cell biology - Properties of cells, Cell biology - Types of cells, Cell biology - Subcellular components, Cell biology - Cell membrane - a cell's protective coat, Cell biology - Cytoskeleton - a cell's scaffold, Cell biology - Genetic material, Cell biology - Organelles, Cell biology - Anatomy of cells, Cell biology - Prokaryotic cells, Cell biology - Eukaryotic cells, Cell biology - Cell functions, Cell biology - Cell growth and metabolism, Cell biology - Making new cells, Cell biology - Protein synthesis, Cell biology - Origins of cells, Cell biology - Origin of first cell, Cell biology - Origin of eukaryotic cells, Cell biology - History, Cell biology - External links

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Unlike physics, biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by mathematics. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, genetics, homeostasis, and interactions. Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the genet ...

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Biology, Biology - Biological Phenomena, Biology - Branches of Biology, Biology - Principles of biology, Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the genetic code, Biology - Evolution: The central principle of biology, Biology - Diversity: The variety of living organisms, Biology - Continuity: The common descent of life, Biology - Homeostasis: Adapting to change, Biology - Interactions: Groups and environments, Biology - Scope of biology, Biology - Structure of life, Biology - Physiology of organisms, Biology - Diversity and evolution of organisms, Biology - Interactions of organisms, Biology - History of the word biology, Biology - History, Biology - Related topics

Read more here: » Biology: Encyclopedia II - Biology - Principles of biology

The proton gradient can be used as an intermediate energy storage for heat production and flagellar rotation. Additionally, it is an interconvertible form of energy in active transport, electron potential generation, NADPH synthesis, and ATP synthesis/hydrolysis. The electrochemical potential difference between the two sides of the membrane in mitochondria, chloroplasts, bacteria and other membranous compartments that engage in active transport involving proton pumps, is at times called a chemiosmotic potential or ...

See also:

Electrochemical gradient, Electrochemical gradient - General overview, Electrochemical gradient - Chemistry, Electrochemical gradient - Biological context, Electrochemical gradient - Ion gradients, Electrochemical gradient - Proton gradients

Read more here: » Electrochemical gradient: Encyclopedia II - Electrochemical gradient - Proton gradients

PCR was invented by Kary Mullis while working for Cetus in December 1983. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 for this achievement, only seven years after his colleagues at Cetus first reduced his proposal to practice. Mullis's idea was to develop a process by which DNA could be artificially multiplied through repeated cycles of duplication driven by an enzyme called DNA polymerase. DNA polymerase occurs naturally in living organisms, where it functions to duplicate DNA when cells divide in mitosis and meiosis. Polymer ...

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Polymerase chain reaction, Polymerase chain reaction - PCR in practice, Polymerase chain reaction - Primers, Polymerase chain reaction - Procedure, Polymerase chain reaction - Example, Polymerase chain reaction - PCR optimization, Polymerase chain reaction - PCR Difficulties, Polymerase chain reaction - Practical modifications to the PCR technique, Polymerase chain reaction - Recent developments in PCR techniques, Polymerase chain reaction - Uses of PCR, Polymerase chain reaction - Genetic fingerprinting, Polymerase chain reaction - Paternity testing, Polymerase chain reaction - Detection of hereditary diseases, Polymerase chain reaction - Cloning genes, Polymerase chain reaction - Mutagenesis, Polymerase chain reaction - Analysis of ancient DNA, Polymerase chain reaction - Genotyping of specific mutations, Polymerase chain reaction - Comparison of gene expression, Polymerase chain reaction - History, Polymerase chain reaction - Patent wars

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Cell biology - Properties of cells. Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities. All cells share several abilities: Reproduction by cell division. Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting energy, molecules and r ...

See also:

Cell biology, Cell biology - Overview, Cell biology - Properties of cells, Cell biology - Types of cells, Cell biology - Subcellular components, Cell biology - Cell membrane - a cell's protective coat, Cell biology - Cytoskeleton - a cell's scaffold, Cell biology - Genetic material, Cell biology - Organelles, Cell biology - Anatomy of cells, Cell biology - Prokaryotic cells, Cell biology - Eukaryotic cells, Cell biology - Cell functions, Cell biology - Cell growth and metabolism, Cell biology - Making new cells, Cell biology - Protein synthesis, Cell biology - Origins of cells, Cell biology - Origin of first cell, Cell biology - Origin of eukaryotic cells, Cell biology - History, Cell biology - External links

Read more here: » Cell biology: Encyclopedia II - Cell biology - Overview

Small amounts of hydrogen sulfide occur in crude petroleum but natural gas can contain up to 28%. Volcanoes and hot springs emit some H2S, where it probably arises via the hydrolysis of sulfide minerals, i.e. MS + H2O to give MO + H2S. Normal average concentration in clean air is about 0.0001-0.0002 ppm. Sulfate-reducing bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing organic matter or hydrogen with sulfates, producing H2S. These microorganisms are prevalent in low-oxygen environments, such ...

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Hydrogen sulfide, Hydrogen sulfide - Chemistry, Hydrogen sulfide - Occurrence, Hydrogen sulfide - Manufacture and use, Hydrogen sulfide - Dangers, Hydrogen sulfide - Health effects, Hydrogen sulfide - Function in the body, Hydrogen sulfide - Induced hibernation, Hydrogen sulfide - Participant in the sulfur cycle, Hydrogen sulfide - Reference

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Genomics appeared in the 1980s and took off in the 1990s with the initiation of genome projects for several species. The related field of genetics is the study of genes and their role in inheritance. The first genome to be sequenced in its entirety was that of bacteriophage Φ-X174; (5,368 kb) in 1980. The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae (1.8Mb) in 1995, and since then genomes are being sequenced at a rapid pace. A rough draft of the human genome was completed by the Human Genome Project in early 2001 amid much fanfare. Genomics - The growth of the omics. See also:

Genomics, Genomics - History, Genomics - The growth of the omics, Genomics - Comparative genomics, Genomics - Genetic similarity

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Oxygen was first discovered by Michał Sędziwój, Polish alchemist and philosopher in late 16th century. Sędziwój assumed the existence of oxygen by warming nitre (saltpeter). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". Oxygen was again discovered by the Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele sometime before 1773, but the discovery was not published until after the independent discovery by Joseph Priestley on August 1, 1774, who called the gas dephlogisticated air (see phlogiston theory). Priestley published hi ...

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Oxygen, Oxygen - Characteristics, Oxygen - Applications, Oxygen - History, Oxygen - Occurrence, Oxygen - Compounds, Oxygen - Isotopes, Oxygen - Precautions

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Like plants, algae have cell walls (Sendbusch, 2003). Algal cell walls contain cellulose and a variety of glycoproteins. The inclusion of addition polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy. Manosyl form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of marine green algae including those from the genera, Codium, Dasycladus, and Acetabularia as well as in the walls of some red algae, like Porphyra and Bangia. Xylanes Alginic acid is a common polysa ...

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Cell wall, Cell wall - Plant cell walls, Cell wall - Composition of plant cell walls, Cell wall - Algal cell walls, Cell wall - Diatom cell walls, Cell wall - Prokaryotic cell walls, Cell wall - Fungal cell walls, Cell wall - Pictures

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Burping is typically caused by eating or drinking too fast, and thereby swallowing (aerophagia) and subsequently expelling air, in which case the expelled gas is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen. Burps can also be caused by imbibing carbonated drinks such as beer, soft drinks, or champagne, in which case the expelled gas is carbon dioxide from the drink itself. Gastroesophageal reflux disease can also cause involuntary burping. Some studies ([1]) have suggested that aerophagia is not the primary culprit but that burping is ...

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Burping, Burping - Physiology, Burping - Social context and etiquette, Burping - Infant burping, Burping - Burped speech, Burping - In animals

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The chemistry of oxidation of pyrites, the production of ferrous ions and subsequently ferric ions, is very complex, and this complexity has considerably inhibited the design of effective treatment options. Although a host of chemical processes contribute to ARD, pyrite oxidation is by far the greatest contributor. A general equation for this process is: 4FeS2(s) + 14O2(g) + 4H2O(l) → 4Fe2+(aq) + 8SO4See also:

Acid mine drainage, Acid mine drainage - Occurrence, Acid mine drainage - Chemistry, Acid mine drainage - Effects, Acid mine drainage - Effects on pH, Acid mine drainage - Yellow boy, Acid mine drainage - Heavy metal contamination, Acid mine drainage - Treatment, Acid mine drainage - Oversight, Acid mine drainage - Methods, Acid mine drainage - List of acid mine drainage sites worldwide, Acid mine drainage - North America, Acid mine drainage - Europe, Acid mine drainage - Oceania

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A strength of Linnaean taxonomy is that it can be used to develop a simple and practical system for organizing the different kinds of living organisms. The most important aspect of this is the general use of binomial nomenclature, the combination of a genus name and a specific epithet ("sapiens" in the example above), to uniquely identify each species of organism. In the example, humankind is uniquely identified by the binomial Homo sapiens. No other species of animal can have this binomial. In this way, every species is given a uniqu ...

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Linnaean taxonomy, Linnaean taxonomy - Example classification: humans, Linnaean taxonomy - Nomenclature, Linnaean taxonomy - Later developments, Linnaean taxonomy - Quotations, Linnaean taxonomy - Reference

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This list will never be complete, but it hints at the enormity of the problem. It includes both mines producing ARD and river systems significantly affected by such drainage. Acid mine drainage - North America. Britannia Beach, British Columbia, Canada Iron Mountain Mine, Shasta County, California, USA Clinch- Powell River system, Virginia and Tennessee, USA Berkeley Pit superfund site, covering the Clark Fork River and 50,000 acres (200 km²) in and around Butte, Montana, ...

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Acid mine drainage, Acid mine drainage - Occurrence, Acid mine drainage - Chemistry, Acid mine drainage - Effects, Acid mine drainage - Effects on pH, Acid mine drainage - Yellow boy, Acid mine drainage - Heavy metal contamination, Acid mine drainage - Treatment, Acid mine drainage - Oversight, Acid mine drainage - Methods, Acid mine drainage - List of acid mine drainage sites worldwide, Acid mine drainage - North America, Acid mine drainage - Europe, Acid mine drainage - Oceania

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Six histone classes are known: H1 (sometimes called the linker histone or H5.) H2A H2B H3 H4 Archaeal histones Two each of the class H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 assemble to form one octameric nucleosome core particle by wrapping 146 base pairs of DNA around the protein spool in 1.65 left-handed super-helical turn. The linker histone H1 binds the nucleosome and the entry and exit sites of the DNA, thus locking the DNA into place and allowing the formation of higher order structur ...

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Histone, Histone - Classes, Histone - Structure, Histone - Functions, Histone - Packing proteins, Histone - Histone modfications in chromatin regulation, Histone - History

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Plankton are also often described in terms of size. Usually the following divisions are used: Megaplankton, 2×10-1→2×100 m (20-200 cm) Macroplankton, 2×10-2→2×10-1 m (2-20 cm) Mesoplankton, 2×10-4→2×10-2 m (0.2 mm-2 cm) Microplankton, 2×10-5→2×10-4 m (20-200 μm) Nanoplankton, 2×10-6→2×10-5 m (2-20 μm) Picoplankton, 2×10-7→2×10-6 m (0.2-2 μm), mostly bacteria Femtoplankton, < 2×10-7 m, (< 0.2 ...

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Plankton, Plankton - Definitions, Plankton - Functional groups, Plankton - Size groups, Plankton - Distribution, Plankton - Biogeochemical significance, Plankton - Cultural references

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Histone - Packing proteins. Histones act as spools around which DNA winds. This enables the compaction necessary to fit the large genomes of eukaryotes inside cell nuclei: the compacted molecule is 50,000 times shorter than an unpacked molecule. Histone - Histone modfications in chromatin regulation. Histones undergo posttranslational modifications which alter their interaction with DNA and nuclear proteins. The H3 and H4 histones have long tails protruding from the nucleosome ...

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Histone, Histone - Classes, Histone - Structure, Histone - Functions, Histone - Packing proteins, Histone - Histone modfications in chromatin regulation, Histone - History

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Plankton are found throughout the oceans, seas and lakes of Earth. However, the local abundance of plankton varies horizontally, vertically and with the time of year. The primary source of this variability is the availability of light. All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), and this confines primary production to surface waters, and to geographical re ...

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Plankton, Plankton - Definitions, Plankton - Functional groups, Plankton - Size groups, Plankton - Distribution, Plankton - Biogeochemical significance, Plankton - Cultural references

Read more here: » Plankton: Encyclopedia II - Plankton - Distribution

Aside from representing the bottom few levels of a food chain that leads up to commercially important fisheries, plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important elements. Of particular contemporary significance is their role in the ocean's carbon cycle. As stated, phytoplankton fix carbon in sunlit surface waters via photosynthesis. Through (primarily) zooplankton grazing, this carbon enters the planktonic foodweb, where it is either respired to provide metabolic energy, or accumulates as biomass or detr ...

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Plankton, Plankton - Definitions, Plankton - Functional groups, Plankton - Size groups, Plankton - Distribution, Plankton - Biogeochemical significance, Plankton - Cultural references

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In the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, Plankton is the name (and species) of one of the primary antagonists SpongeBob faces. His small size proves to be retained in this sense, as he is much smaller than the other characters. In an episode of the animated television series The Simpsons, the family chooses to go shopping at a 33-cent discount store which offers a variety of strange foods. Homer purchases and eats expired canned plankton, and consequen ...

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Plankton, Plankton - Definitions, Plankton - Functional groups, Plankton - Size groups, Plankton - Distribution, Plankton - Biogeochemical significance, Plankton - Cultural references

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Unlike physics, biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by mathematics. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, genetics, homeostasis, and interactions. Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the gene ...

See also:

Biology, Biology - Principles of biology, Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the genetic code, Biology - Evolution: The central principle of biology, Biology - Diversity: The variety of living organisms, Biology - Continuity: The common descent of life, Biology - Homeostasis: Adapting to change, Biology - Interactions: Groups and environments, Biology - Scope of biology, Biology - Structure of life, Biology - Physiology of organisms, Biology - Diversity and evolution of organisms, Biology - Interactions of organisms, Biology - History of the word biology, Biology - History

Read more here: » Biology: Encyclopedia II - Biology - Principles of biology

The name plankton is derived from the Greek term πλαγκτον, meaning "wanderer" or "drifter". While some forms of plankton are capable of independent movement and can swim up to several hundreds of metres vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by currents in the body of water they inhabit. This is in contrast to nekton organisms that can swim against the ambient flow of the water environment and control their horizontal position (e.g. ...

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Plankton, Plankton - Definitions, Plankton - Functional groups, Plankton - Size groups, Plankton - Distribution, Plankton - Biogeochemical significance, Plankton - Cultural references

Read more here: » Plankton: Encyclopedia II - Plankton - Definitions