Scotland in this period, for such a small region of Eurasia, is relatively well studied in this period. New works come out every year, and the field of Scottish medievalism is a vibrant and changing one. Scottish medievalists can generally be grouped into two categories: Celticists and Normanists. The former, such as Thomas Owen Clancy, Dauvit Broun, and others are interested in the native cultures of the country, and often have linguistic training necessary for their specialism. Normanists on the other hand, are concerned with the French an ...

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Scotland in the High Middle Ages, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Historiography, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Origins of the Kingdom of Alba, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Kingdom of Alba or Scotia, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Gaelic kings: Domnall II to Alexander I, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Scoto-Norman kings: David I to Alexander III, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Other Kingdoms, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Geography, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Economy, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Demographics, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Society, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Law and government, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Military, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Christianity & the Church, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Saints, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Monasticism, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Ecclesia Scoticana, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Culture, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Outsiders view, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - National Identity, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Notes

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Main articles: Scotland in the Early Middle Ages, and Origins of the Kingdom of Alba In the Roman period, the province province of Britannia formally ended at Hadrian's Wall. Between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall, the Romans created a series of buffer state, and beyond the latter lay the Picts. The development of "Pictland", according to the historical model developed by Peter Heather, was a natural response to Roman Imperialism.[3]See also:

Scotland in the High Middle Ages, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Historiography, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Origins of the Kingdom of Alba, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Kingdom of Alba or Scotia, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Gaelic kings: Domnall II to Alexander I, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Scoto-Norman kings: David I to Alexander III, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Other Kingdoms, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Geography, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Economy, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Demographics, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Society, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Law and government, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Military, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Christianity & the Church, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Saints, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Monasticism, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Ecclesia Scoticana, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Culture, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Outsiders view, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - National Identity, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Notes

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We can be sure that at least all of northern Britain, except the Scandinavian far north and west was Christian by the tenth century. The most important factors for the conversion of Scotland were the Roman province of Britannia to the south, and later the so-called Gaelic or Columban church, an interlinked system of monasteries and aristocratic networks which combined to spread both Christianity and the Gaelic language amongst the Picts. Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Saints. Like every other Christian ...

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Scotland in the High Middle Ages, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Historiography, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Origins of the Kingdom of Alba, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Kingdom of Alba or Scotia, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Gaelic kings: Domnall II to Alexander I, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Scoto-Norman kings: David I to Alexander III, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Other Kingdoms, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Geography, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Economy, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Demographics, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Society, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Law and government, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Military, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Christianity & the Church, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Saints, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Monasticism, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Ecclesia Scoticana, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Culture, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Outsiders view, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - National Identity, Scotland in the High Middle Ages - Notes

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The area around Glasgow has hosted communities for millenia, with the River Clyde providing a natural location for fishing. The Romans later built outposts in the area and, to keep Roman Britannia separate from the Celtic and Pictish Caledonia, constructed the Antonine Wall, remains of which can still be seen in Glasgow today. Glasgow itself was founded by the Christian missionary Saint Mungo in the 6th century. He established a church on the Molendinar Burn, where the present Glasgow Cathedral stands, an ...

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History of Glasgow, History of Glasgow - Founding of the city, History of Glasgow - Glasgow Cathedral, History of Glasgow - University of Glasgow, History of Glasgow - Trade and the Industrial Revolution, History of Glasgow - Decline of industry and the post-war period, History of Glasgow - Modern Glasgow

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The myth of MacAlpin's Treason tells how Alba was born when the Dalriadan Kenneth mac Alpin conquered the Picts. Modern studies are less sure of Kenneth's Dalriadan roots and consider Kenneth and his successors to be Pictish Kings. Kenneth's son Constantine had the Series Longoir written to show his family's claim to the throne of a united Pictland. The triumph of Gaelic over Pictish and the change from Pictland to Alba is placed in the half-century r ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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Malcolm's victory foreshadowed what became a major thread of Scottish history for the next thousand years. He had relied on Northumbrian assistance to return to the throne, and from then on Scotland at no time remained very far from the thoughts of England's rulers. The reciprocal condition equally applied. In 1066 the Norman Conquest shook England to its foundations and one of the claimants of the English throne opposing William the Conqueror, Edgar, eventually fled to Scotland. Malcolm married Edgar's sister Margaret, and thus came ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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In the wake of the Roman withdrawal Scotland's population comprised two main groups: the Picts, a people of uncertain origin (but possibly a Brythonic Celtic group) who occupied most of Scotland north of the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth: the area known as "Pictavia" the Britons formed a Roman-influenced Brythonic Celtic culture in the south, with the kingdom of Y Strad Glud (Strathclyde) from the Firth of Clyde southwards, Rheged in Cumbria, Selgovae in the central Borders area and the Votadini o ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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The written history of Scotland largely begins with the coming of the Roman empire to Britain. Although the pre-Roman inhabitants occasionally used writing for commemorative purpose, these societies favoured a strong oral history. With the loss of the druidic tradition (due to war, famine, and particularly the proscriptions of later Christian missionaries), the people forgot much of this lore. The only surviving pre-Roman account of Scotland originated with the Greek Pytheas of Massalia who circumnavigated the British islands (which he called Pretaniké) in 325 ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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In addition to the clan tartans, there are many tartans regsitered for families, districts, institutions and even specific commemorative "memorials" for events or persons. Further, tradition reserves some patterns for use by Scottish Highland military units of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries. Those units associated with the British Royal Family use the Royal Stewart Tartan regardless of whether they are affiliated by blood to the Stewart clan. This is because of the Royal Family's Stewart ancestry through James VI of Sco ...

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Tartan, Tartan - Origins, Tartan - Clan tartans, Tartan - Other modern tartans

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The naming and registration of official clan tartans began on April 8th 1815 when the Highland Society of London (founded 1778) resolved that all the clan chiefs each "be respectfully solicited to furnish the Society with as Much of the Tartan of his Lordship's Clan as will serve to Show the Pattern and to Authenticate the Same by Attaching Thereunto a Card bearing the Impression of his Lordship's Arms." Many had no idea of what their tartan might be, but were keen to comply and to provide authentic signed and sealed samples. Lord Mac ...

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Tartan, Tartan - Origins, Tartan - Clan tartans, Tartan - Other modern tartans

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Margaret's death (1290) now left the Scottish throne with no clear successor, and Edward became the arbitrator between the various claimants to the crown. He immediately stated that any claimant to the throne would have to acknowledge him as overlord. With a large number of claimants, it was not difficult to find a plausible one who would accept this condition: Edward selected him, and John Balliol became king (17 November 1292). Balliol soon tried to back out of the arrangement, largely because Edward put considerable ingenuity into ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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After David's death, Robert II, the first of the Stewart (later Stuart) kings, came to the throne in 1371. There followed in 1390 his ailing son John, who, due to the hatred inspired by the previous King John (Balliol), took the regnal name Robert III. During Robert III's reign (1390 – 1406), actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother, also named Robert, the Duke of Albany. In 1396 during this king's reign, the last trial by combat in Europe, the See also:

History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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See Also Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Scottish Civil War History of Scotland - Bishops Wars. Shortly after his reign began, an attempt by Charles I to impose English-style prayer books on the Scottish church resulted in anger and widespread rioting. (The story goes that it was initiated by a certain Jenny Geddes who threw a stool in St Giles Cathedral.) Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant, asserting Presbyterian practice. Charles gathered a military force, b ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland. The execution of a number of Protestant preachers, most notably the Lutheran influenced Patrick Hamilton in 1527 and later the Calvinist George Wishart in 1546 who were burnt at the stake in St. Andrews by Cardinal Beaton for heresy, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Beaton w ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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James's attempt to introduce religious toleration to England's Roman Catholics alienated his Protestant subjects. Neither this, nor his moves towards absolutism, provoked outright rebellion, as it was believed that he would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and future wife of William of Orange. When, in 1688, James produced a male heir, everything changed. At the invitation of seven Englishmen, William landed in England with 40,000 men, and James fled. Whilst this was primarily an English event, the "Glorious Revolution" had a ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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By 1700, the Protestant monarchy seemed in danger of coming to an end with the childless Stuart Queen Anne. Rather than return to her Roman Catholic brother James Francis Edward Stuart, the English Parliament enacted that Sophia of Hanover and her descendants should succeed (Act of Settlement 1701). However, the Scottish counterpart, the Act of Security, merely prohibited a Roman Catholic successor, leaving open the possibility that the crowns would diverge. Rather than risk the possible return of James Francis Edward Stuart, then liv ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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Tied as it was to the health of the British Empire, Scotland suffered after the First World War as it had gained beforehand. In the Highlands, which had provided a disproportionate number of recruits for the army, a whole generation of young men were lost, and many villages and communities suffered greatly. In the Lowlands, particularly Glasgow, poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest. John MacLean became a key political figure in what became known as Red Clydeside, and in January 1919, the British Governmen ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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After 1745, British authorities acted to suppress the clan loyalties in the Highlands. The wearing of tartan and the playing of bagpipes were both forbidden for a time. The warrior culture of the Highlands was re-diverted as Highlanders were recruited as soldiers to serve in the wider British Empire. Clan Chiefs were encouraged to consider themselves as owners of the land in their control, in the English manner - it was previously considered common to the clan. As these new landowners converted land to more profitable sheep pasture, m ...

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History of Scotland, History of Scotland - Prehistoric settlement, History of Scotland - Roman invasion, History of Scotland - Post-Roman Scotland, History of Scotland - Rise of the Kingdom of Alba, History of Scotland - Anglo-Norman influence, History of Scotland - War with England, History of Scotland - Late Mediaeval events, History of Scotland - Mary Queen of Scots, History of Scotland - Protestant Reformation, History of Scotland - Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth, History of Scotland - Bishops Wars, History of Scotland - Civil War in England and Scotland, History of Scotland - Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration, History of Scotland - The Glorious Revolution, History of Scotland - Scottish overseas colonies, History of Scotland - Union the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, History of Scotland - Industrial Revolution Clearance and Enlightenment, History of Scotland - 20th Century Scotland, History of Scotland - 21st Century Scotland

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For the first twenty years, the Roman rule was oppressive, and this treatment led Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, to revolt. The Trinovantes and Catuvellauni joined, and the alliance assaulted the Roman colony at Camulodunum, looting and burning the town as well as slaying every man, woman and child they found. The governor Suetonius Paullinus, upon reaching London from his campaigning in the western part of the province, found the town indefensible with the few troops he had. As a result, Paullinus was forced to abandon the city and took only ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Iberia. Gold, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool, corn and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market and imports were often of exotic Continental items such as fine pottery, oliv ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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Bearsden is primarily a middle-class commuter suburb. The majority of its population live in detached houses, travelling into Glasgow each day to work or study. According to the 2001 census of Scotland, the area comprises 10,417 households, with a total population of 27,967. This is an increase of 0.6% (or 161 people) since 1991, when the population stood at 27,806. (There are an average of 2.64 people per household.) Of these, 8,306 are over 55 years old, 17,700 are in social class ABC1, and 6,052 are in social class C2DE. 73% of residents ...

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Bearsden, Bearsden - Transport links and physical layout, Bearsden - Population, Bearsden - History, Bearsden - Roman, Bearsden - Up to the 19th century, Bearsden - 20th century

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Walls and fortified wall structures were built in the modern era, too. They did not, however have the original purpose of being a structure able to resist a prolonged siege or bombardment. The Berlin's city wall from the 1730s to the 1860s was partially made of wood. Its primary purpose was to enable the city to impose tolls on goods and, secondarily, also served to prevent the desertion of soldiers from the garrison in Berlin. The Berlin wall was a different form of wall, in that it did not primarily serve the purpose of prote ...

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Defensive wall, Defensive wall - History, Defensive wall - Composition, Defensive wall - Decline, Defensive wall - Modern Era, Defensive wall - Africa, Defensive wall - Austria, Defensive wall - Azerbaijan, Defensive wall - Canada, Defensive wall - China, Defensive wall - Croatia, Defensive wall - France, Defensive wall - Germany, Defensive wall - Greece, Defensive wall - Hungary, Defensive wall - Israel, Defensive wall - Ireland, Defensive wall - Middle East, Defensive wall - Morocco and Western Sahara, Defensive wall - the Netherlands, Defensive wall - Philippines, Defensive wall - Poland, Defensive wall - Spain, Defensive wall - Sweden, Defensive wall - Turkey, Defensive wall - United Kingdom, Defensive wall - United States

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