antibodies

A 5 to 7 micrometer slice of most tissues is almost completely transparent with very little visible detail. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. Hematoxylin and eosin (abbreviated H&E) are among the most commonly used stains in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin colors nuclei blue, eosin colors the cytoplasm pink. Other compound used to color tissue sections include saffron, silver salts and numerous natural and artificial dyes originally developed to stain cloth fibers. The science of tis ...

See also:

Histology, Histology - Fixation, Histology - Embedding, Histology - Sectioning, Histology - Staining, Histology - Alternative techniques

Read more here: » Histology: Encyclopedia II - Histology - Staining

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine. It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries b ...

See also:

Immunology, Immunology - Histological examination of the immune system, Immunology - Classical immunology, Immunology - Clinical immunology, Immunology - Immunotherapy, Immunology - Diagnostic immunology, Immunology - Evolutionary immunology

Read more here: » Immunology: Encyclopedia II - Immunology - Classical immunology

The tissue is then prepared using histology procedures for viewing under a microscope. Briefly, the samples are immersed in multiple baths of progressively more concentrated ethanol, to dehydrate the tissue, followed by toluene, and finally hot liquid paraffin. During this 12 to 16 hour process, paraffin will replace the water in the tissue, turning soft, moist tissues into a hard paraffin block. This process is known as embedding. The process of embedding then allows the sectioning of tissues into very thin (5 - 7 micrometer) ...

See also:

Histopathology, Histopathology - Collection of tissues, Histopathology - Preparation for histology, Histopathology - Interpretation

Read more here: » Histopathology: Encyclopedia II - Histopathology - Preparation for histology

Acetylcholine is an ester of acetic acid and choline with chemical formula CH3COOCH2CH2N+(CH3)3 and structure: This structure is reflected in the systematic name, 2-(acetyloxy)-N,N,N-trimethylethanaminium. When acetylcholine binds to acetylcholine receptors of striated muscle fibers, sodium ions can enter the muscle cell, stimulating muscle contraction. Acetyl ...

See also:

Acetylcholine, Acetylcholine - Chemistry, Acetylcholine - Release sites, Acetylcholine - Pharmacology, Acetylcholine - Sources

Read more here: » Acetylcholine: Encyclopedia II - Acetylcholine - Chemistry

Bioterrorism - Category A agents. These are biological agents with both a high potential for adverse public health impact and that also have a serious potential for large-scale dissemination. The Category A agents are anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers. Anthrax  Anthrax is a bacterium with a highly resistant spore form. It is highly infectious and lethal when inhaled. It is a non-contagious disease which does not spread from one pe ...

See also:

Bioterrorism, Bioterrorism - Types of biological agents, Bioterrorism - Category A agents, Bioterrorism - Category B agents, Bioterrorism - Category C agents, Bioterrorism - Biological warfare programmes and convention on biological weapons, Bioterrorism - Modern bioterrorist incidents, Bioterrorism - Planning and reacting to a bioterrorist attack, Bioterrorism - Plants as sensors, Bioterrorism - Publications

Read more here: » Bioterrorism: Encyclopedia II - Bioterrorism - Types of biological agents

Autoimmune diseases - Accepted. Diseases with a complete or partial autoimmune etiology: Crohn's disease is a form of inflammatory bowel disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the intestinal tract. Major symptoms include abdominal pain and diarrhea. Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is an acquired immune-mediated inflammatory disorder of the peripheral nervous system (e.g., not the brain and spinal column). It is also called acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, acut ...

See also:

Autoimmune diseases, Autoimmune diseases - Autoimmune diseases, Autoimmune diseases - Accepted, Autoimmune diseases - Suspected, Autoimmune diseases - Reference

Read more here: » Autoimmune diseases: Encyclopedia II - Autoimmune diseases - Autoimmune diseases

It is used in diseases featuring high LDL, such as the rare homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, when the heterozygous form does not respond to medical treatment, or when the treatment has led to dangerous side-effects (such as rhabdomyolysis). The procedure takes 2-4 hours and must be repeated every several weeks to keep the LDL levels from accumulation and causing cardiovascular disease. It is an expensive procedure, limiting its ...

See also:

LDL apheresis, LDL apheresis - Uses, LDL apheresis - Principles, LDL apheresis - External link

Read more here: » LDL apheresis: Encyclopedia II - LDL apheresis - Uses

The taxonomy presented here is that given by Fisher, 1994. The lampreys comprise an entire class Cephalaspidomorphi, containing a single order Petromyzontiformes and family Petromyzontidae. Within this family, there are 40 recorded species in 9 genera and 3 subfamilies: Subfamily Geotriianae Genus Geotria Geotria australis (Gray,1851) Subfamily Mordaciinae Genus Mordacia Mordacia lapicida (Gray, 1851) ...

See also:

Lamprey, Lamprey - Physical description, Lamprey - Taxonomy, Lamprey - Relation to humans

Read more here: » Lamprey: Encyclopedia II - Lamprey - Taxonomy

Researchers working on such "rational design" strategies for developing antivirals have tried to attack viruses at every stage of their life cycles. Viral life cycles vary in their precise details depending on the species of virus, but they all share a general pattern: Attachment to a host cell. Release of viral genes and possibly enzymes into the host cell. Replication of viral components using host-cell machinery. Assembly of viral components into complete viral particles.See also:

Antiviral drug, Antiviral drug - History, Antiviral drug - Development of antiviral drugs, Antiviral drug - Antiviral drug design strategies

Read more here: » Antiviral drug: Encyclopedia II - Antiviral drug - Antiviral drug design strategies

These are the oldest antihistaminergic drugs and are relatively inexpensive and widely available. They are effective in the relief of allergic symptoms, but are typically moderately to highly potent muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-antagonists (anticholinergic) agents as well. These agents also commonly have action at α-adrenergic receptors and/or 5-HT receptors. This lack of receptor-selectivity is the basis of the poor tolerability-profile of some of these agents, especially compared with the second-generation H1-antihistamines. Patient response and occurrence of a ...

See also:

Antihistamine, Antihistamine - Pharmacology, Antihistamine - Clinical use of antihistamines, Antihistamine - Indications, Antihistamine - Adverse drug reactions, Antihistamine - First-generation H₁-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Ethylenediamines, Antihistamine - Ethanolamines, Antihistamine - Alkylamines, Antihistamine - Piperazines, Antihistamine - Tricyclics, Antihistamine - Common structural features of classical antihistamine, Antihistamine - Second-generation H₁-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Topical, Antihistamine - Common structural features of non-sedating antihistamines, Antihistamine - Third-generation H₁-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Systemic, Antihistamine - Other agents, Antihistamine - Inhibitors of histamine release, Antihistamine - H₂-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - H₃- and H₄-receptor antagonists, Antihistamine - Other agents with antihistaminergic activity

Read more here: » Antihistamine: Encyclopedia II - Antihistamine - First-generation H₁-receptor antagonists

Antivenoms typically need to be administered as soon as possible after the venom has been injected to be effective (up to 4-5 hours). Since the advent of antivenoms, some bites which were previously inevitably fatal have become only rarely fatal provided that the antivenom is administered soon enough. The antivenin is usually purified by several processes but still may contain other serum proteins that can act as antigens. Some individuals may react to the antivenin with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis) or a delayed hypersensitivity (serum sickness) reaction and antiv ...

See also:

Antivenom, Antivenom - Therapeutic use, Antivenom - Availability of antivenoms, Antivenom - Spiders, Antivenom - Snakes, Antivenom - Antivenin sources, Antivenom - Natural and acquired immunity, Antivenom - External link

Read more here: » Antivenom: Encyclopedia II - Antivenom - Therapeutic use

The Pasteur Institute was founded in 1887 by Louis Pasteur, the French scientist whose early experiments with fermentation led to pioneering research in bacteriology. A giant in science, Pasteur discovered the principle of sterilization which came to be known as "pasteurization." His discoveries led to the universal practice of surgical antisepsis. He also developed techniques of vaccination to control bacterial infection, as ...

See also:

Pasteur Institute, Pasteur Institute - History, Pasteur Institute - Pasteur Institute today, Pasteur Institute - Research Centers, Pasteur Institute - Teaching Center, Pasteur Institute - Epidemiological Reference Center, Pasteur Institute - Vaccines and Diagnostic Products, Pasteur Institute - Structure and Support, Pasteur Institute - Source

Read more here: » Pasteur Institute: Encyclopedia II - Pasteur Institute - History

We can also classify antigens according to their origin. Antigen - Exogenous antigens. Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion, or injection. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, these antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to T helper cells (CD4+) by the use of class II histocompatibility molecules on their surface. Some T cells are specific for ...

See also:

Antigen, Antigen - Types of antigens, Antigen - Origin of antigens, Antigen - Exogenous antigens, Antigen - Endogenous antigens, Antigen - Tumor antigens, Antigen - Links

Read more here: » Antigen: Encyclopedia II - Antigen - Origin of antigens

Avian influenza - Infections. In humans, avian flu viruses cause similar symptoms to other types of flu. [15] These include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune. In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like sym ...

See also:

Avian influenza, Avian influenza - In nonhumans, Avian influenza - In humans, Avian influenza - Infections, Avian influenza - Prevention and treatment, Avian influenza - Potential pandemic

Read more here: » Avian influenza: Encyclopedia II - Avian influenza - In humans

B cells are produced through several stages, each stage represents a change in the genome content, in which the variety of antibodies are produced. The human antibody is composed of two light and two heavy chains, and there are genes specifying them, which is known as the 'H' chain loci and the 'L' chain loci. In the H chain loci there are three regions, V, D and J, and combinations of threes are drawn, in terms of rearrangement which results in deletions of bases between the two selected points, and results in formation of a unique combinat ...

See also:

B cell, B cell - Production of B Cells

Read more here: » B cell: Encyclopedia II - B cell - Production of B Cells

Most multicellular organisms possess an "innate immune system", generally comprising a set of germ-line encoded receptors to pathogens, that does not change during the lifetime of the organism. Adaptive immunity, in which the responses to pathogens change and develop during the lifetime of an individual, seems to have appeared somewhat abruptly in evolutionary time, with the appearance of ch ...

See also:

Immune system, Immune system - Structure, Immune system - Innate immune system, Immune system - Adaptive immune system, Immune system - Intersections between systems, Immune system - Disorders of the human immune system, Immune system - Other factors that affect immune response, Immune system - Pharmacology

Read more here: » Immune system: Encyclopedia II - Immune system - Structure

Molecular biology has shown that the nicotinic and muscarinic receptors belong to distinct protein superfamilies. The nAChRs are ion channels, and, like other members of the "cys-loop" ligand-gated ion channel superfamily, are composed of five protein subunits arranged like staves around a barrel. The subunit composition is highly variable across different tissues. Each channel contains two alpha subunits, a beta, a gamma, and a delta. Binding of acetylcholine to the N termini of each of the alpha subunits results in activation of the ...

See also:

Acetylcholine receptor, Acetylcholine receptor - Classification, Acetylcholine receptor - Receptor types, Acetylcholine receptor - Role in health and disease

Read more here: » Acetylcholine receptor: Encyclopedia II - Acetylcholine receptor - Receptor types

Certain proteins associated with cellular signaling processes have been shown to associate with lipid rafts (Brown & Rose, 1992). Proteins that have shown association to the lipid rafts include glycosylphosphatidylinositol(GPI)-anchored proteins, doubly-acylated tyrosine kinases of the Src family, and transmembrane proteins. This association can at least be partially contributed to the acylated, saturated tails of both the tyrosine kinases and the GPI-anchored proteins, which matches the properties of sphingolipids more so than the rest of th ...

See also:

Lipid raft, Lipid raft - Properties of lipid rafts, Lipid raft - Examples, Lipid raft - Immune system, Lipid raft - Vascular system, Lipid raft - Reproductive system, Lipid raft - Viral propagation, Lipid raft - Visualization of lipid rafts, Lipid raft - Controversy about lipid rafts

Read more here: » Lipid raft: Encyclopedia II - Lipid raft - Examples

There are many different types of white blood cells. Here are the most basic kinds: White blood cell - Granulocytes. Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells, characterised by the fact that all types have differently staining granules in their cytoplasm on light microscopy. There are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils (named according to their staining properties). ...

See also:

White blood cell, White blood cell - Nomenclature, White blood cell - Types, White blood cell - Granulocytes, White blood cell - Lymphocytes, White blood cell - Monocytes, White blood cell - Diseases, White blood cell - Other tissue cells

Read more here: » White blood cell: Encyclopedia II - White blood cell - Types

It is supposed to be the result of inflammation of the facial nerve, which produces pressure on the nerve as it exits the skull within its bony canal. Patients with facial palsy for which an underlying cause can be readily found are not generally considered to have Bell's palsy per se. These underlying problems include tumor, meningitis, stroke, diabetes mellitus, head trauma and inflammatory diseases of the cranial nerves (sarcoidosis, brucellosis, etc). In these conditions, the neurologic findings are rarely restricted to the facial nerve. ...

See also:

Bell's palsy, Bell's palsy - Symptoms, Bell's palsy - Investigation, Bell's palsy - Diagnosis, Bell's palsy - Pathology, Bell's palsy - Epidemiology, Bell's palsy - Treatment, Bell's palsy - Complications, Bell's palsy - Famous sufferers

Read more here: » Bell's palsy: Encyclopedia II - Bell's palsy - Pathology

Humans have the following blood types along with their respective antigens and antibodies: Individuals with type A blood have red blood cells with antigen A on their surface and produce antibodies against antigen B in their blood serum. Therefore an A-negative person can only receive blood from another A-negative person or from an O-negative person. Individuals with type B blood have the opposite arrangement, antigen B on their cells and produce antibodies against antigen A in their serum. Therefore, a B-negative person ...

See also:

Blood type, Blood type - Principles, Blood type - ABO system, Blood type - The H antigen, Blood type - Inheritance, Blood type - Rhesus system CDE, Blood type - Rh factor frequency, Blood type - Inheritance, Blood type - Frequency of ABO and Rhesus, Blood type - Other blood types, Blood type - Bombay phenotype, Blood type - McLeod phenotype, Blood type - Compatibility, Blood type - Evolutionary significance, Blood type - Social significance

Read more here: » Blood type: Encyclopedia II - Blood type - ABO system

M. cerebralis infections have been reported from a wide range of salmonid species: 8 species of "Atlantic" salmonids, Salmo; 4 species of "Pacific" salmonids, Onchorhynchus; 4 species of Char, Salvelinus; the Grayling, Thymallus thymallus; and the Huchen, Hucho hucho[24]. M. cerebralis causes damage to its fish hosts through attachment of triactinomyxon spores and the migrations of various stages through ...

See also:

Myxobolus cerebralis, Myxobolus cerebralis - Taxonomy, Myxobolus cerebralis - Morphology, Myxobolus cerebralis - Triactinomyxon stage, Myxobolus cerebralis - Sporoplasm stage, Myxobolus cerebralis - Myxosporean stage, Myxobolus cerebralis - Life cycle, Myxobolus cerebralis - Pathology, Myxobolus cerebralis - Susceptibility, Myxobolus cerebralis - Diagnosis, Myxobolus cerebralis - Impact, Myxobolus cerebralis - Impact in Europe, Myxobolus cerebralis - Impact in New Zealand, Myxobolus cerebralis - Impact in the United States, Myxobolus cerebralis - Prevention and control, Myxobolus cerebralis - Notes

Read more here: » Myxobolus cerebralis: Encyclopedia II - Myxobolus cerebralis - Pathology