Around the world, the most common cause of congenital hypothyroidism is iodine deficiency, but in most of the developed world and areas of adequate environmental iodine, cases are due to a mixture of known and unknown causes. Most commonly there is a defect of development of the thyroid gland itself, resulting in an absent (athyreosis) or underdeveloped (hypoplastic) gland. A hypoplastic gland may develop higher in the neck or even in the back of the tongue. A gland in the wrong place is referred to as ectopic, and an ectopic gland at ...

See also:

Congenital hypothyroidism, Congenital hypothyroidism - Causes, Congenital hypothyroidism - Diagnostic evaluation, Congenital hypothyroidism - Treatment, Congenital hypothyroidism - Symptoms, Congenital hypothyroidism - Prognosis

Read more here: » Congenital hypothyroidism: Encyclopedia II - Congenital hypothyroidism - Causes

The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers, such as pets or aspirin, and limiting or eliminating exposure to them. Desensitization is commonly attempted, but has not been shown to be effective. As is common with respiratory disease, smoking adversely affects asthmatics in several ways, including an increased severity of symptoms, a more rapid decline of lung function, and decreased response to preventive medications.[9] Asthmatics wh ...

See also:

Asthma, Asthma - History, Asthma - Signs and symptoms, Asthma - Diagnosis, Asthma - Differential diagnosis, Asthma - Pathophysiology, Asthma - Bronchoconstriction, Asthma - Bronchial inflammation, Asthma - The immune response, Asthma - Pathogenesis, Asthma - Treatment, Asthma - Relief medication, Asthma - Prevention medication, Asthma - Long-acting β₂-agonists, Asthma - Emergency treatment, Asthma - Alternative medicine, Asthma - Prognosis, Asthma - Epidemiology, Asthma - US Socioeconomic Factors, Asthma - Asthma and athletics

Read more here: » Asthma: Encyclopedia II - Asthma - Treatment

Also known as the indirect antiglobulin test (IAT). This is a two stage test. The first stage Washed test red blood cells (RBCs) are incubated with a test serum. If antibodies are present in the serum to antigens on the RBC surface the antibodies will bind onto the surface of the RBCs. The second stage The RBCs are washed and incubated with anti-human globulin. If the the test serum contains an antibody to an antigen that is present the surface of the test RBCs, ...

See also:

Coombs test, Coombs test - Direct Coombs Test, Coombs test - Indirect Coombs test, Coombs test - Reference

Read more here: » Coombs test: Encyclopedia II - Coombs test - Indirect Coombs test

The initial stages of HIV-positive are asymptomatic for periods usually exceeding one year. A person who engages in sexual activity or donates blood during this time may therefore have no reasonable basis upon which to suspect that he or she is transmitting a virus. The American Civil Liberties Union and other national groups have expressed concern that many newly drafted laws are too vague because they may criminalize individuals by virtue of their membership of a higher risk class of person, e.g. known drug users, the sexually promiscuous, ...

See also:

Criminal transmission of HIV, Criminal transmission of HIV - Modes of transmission, Criminal transmission of HIV - Blood donation, Criminal transmission of HIV - The legal political and social problems, Criminal transmission of HIV - Example Statute, Criminal transmission of HIV - Outside the United States, Criminal transmission of HIV - England and Wales, Criminal transmission of HIV - Scotland, Criminal transmission of HIV - New Zealand, Criminal transmission of HIV - Canada

Read more here: » Criminal transmission of HIV: Encyclopedia II - Criminal transmission of HIV - The legal political and social problems

In the Western world, cow's milk is most often extracted on an industrial scale for human consumption and industrial uses. It is the most commonly consumed form of milk. Dairy farming has become such a large business that in many countries the process is highly automated, with farmers using machines that attach directly to the teats of the cow's udder to speed milking, and breeds of cattle, such as Holstein, specially bred for increased milk production. Milk - Co ...

See also:

Milk, Milk - Composition and nutrition, Milk - Cow's milk, Milk - Commercial processing of milk, Milk - Distribution, Milk - Varieties and brands, Milk - Other milk animals, Milk - Curdling, Milk - Why milk expands on heating

Read more here: » Milk: Encyclopedia II - Milk - Cow's milk

In the early years of the human species, breastfeeding was as common as it was for other mammals feeding their young. There were no alternative foods for the infants, and the mother, along with other lactating females, would have no choice but to breastfeed the children. This process is still seen in many developing countries and is known as shared breastfeeding. The Egyptian, Greek and Roman empires saw women only feeding their own children. However, breastfeeding began to be seen as something too common to be done by royalty, ...

See also:

Breastfeeding, Breastfeeding - Beginning lactation, Breastfeeding - The let-down reflex, Breastfeeding - Benefits, Breastfeeding - Benefits for the infant, Breastfeeding - Benefits for the mother, Breastfeeding - Bonding, Breastfeeding - Recommendations and research, Breastfeeding - Difficulties with breastfeeding, Breastfeeding - Breast refusal, Breastfeeding - Medical conditions of the infant, Breastfeeding - Medical conditions of the mother, Breastfeeding - When breastfeeding can be harmful to the infant, Breastfeeding - Health and diet, Breastfeeding - Feeding options and requirements, Breastfeeding - Expression, Breastfeeding - Infant formula, Breastfeeding - Tandem extended and shared breastfeeding, Breastfeeding - Breastfeeding method, Breastfeeding - Feeding and positioning, Breastfeeding - Breast and nipple pain, Breastfeeding - Weaning, Breastfeeding - History of breastfeeding, Breastfeeding - Developing alternatives, Breastfeeding - Breastfeeding in Japan, Breastfeeding - Breastfeeding in Canada, Breastfeeding - Breastfeeding in Cuba, Breastfeeding - Publicity promotion and law, Breastfeeding - Recent global uptake, Breastfeeding - Lactation without pregnancy

Read more here: » Breastfeeding: Encyclopedia II - Breastfeeding - History of breastfeeding

Gastrointestinal tract - Digestion and excretion. Main articles: Digestion, and [[{{{2}}}]], and [[{{{3}}}]], and [[{{{4}}}]]See also:

Gastrointestinal tract, Gastrointestinal tract - Basic anatomy, Gastrointestinal tract - The gut, Gastrointestinal tract - Related organs, Gastrointestinal tract - Physiology, Gastrointestinal tract - Digestion and excretion, Gastrointestinal tract - Specialization of organs, Gastrointestinal tract - Immune function, Gastrointestinal tract - Uses of gut

Read more here: » Gastrointestinal tract: Encyclopedia II - Gastrointestinal tract - Physiology

The classical MHC molecules (also referred to as HLA molecules in humans) have a vital role in the complex immunological dialog that must occur between T cells and other cells of the body. At maturity, MHC molecules are anchored in the cell membrane, where they display short polypeptides to T cells, via the T cell receptors (TCRs). The polypeptides may be "self," that is, originating from a protein created by the organism itself, or they may be foreign, originating from bacteria, viruses, pollen, etc. The overarching design of the MHC-TCR interaction is that T c ...

See also:

Major histocompatibility complex, Major histocompatibility complex - Introduction, Major histocompatibility complex - Molecular biology of MHC proteins, Major histocompatibility complex - MHC class I, Major histocompatibility complex - MHC class II, Major histocompatibility complex - MHC evolution and allelic diversity

Read more here: » Major histocompatibility complex: Encyclopedia II - Major histocompatibility complex - Molecular biology of MHC proteins

Viruses attack their hosts to insert their genetic material into the genetic material of the host. This genetic material contains instructions to produce these viruses. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce the viruses. This is how viruses spread, in general. In addition to the instructions producing the components of the virus itself, viruses can carry additional genes containing instructions for creating other kinds of proteins. In theory, if we insert a gene that is missing from a patient in a virus, and infec ...

See also:

Gene therapy, Gene therapy - Background, Gene therapy - Types of gene therapy, Gene therapy - Ex vivo, Gene therapy - Vectors in gene therapy, Gene therapy - Retroviruses, Gene therapy - Adenoviruses, Gene therapy - Adeno-associated viruses, Gene therapy - Problems and ethics, Gene therapy - Publications

Read more here: » Gene therapy: Encyclopedia II - Gene therapy - Vectors in gene therapy

Medical treatment of Graves disease includes antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine and thyroidectomy (surgical excision of the gland). Graves-Basedow disease - Antithyroid drugs. The main antithyroid drugs are methimazole (US), carbimazole (UK) and propylthiouracil (PTU). These drugs block the binding of ioding and coupling of iodotyrosines. The most dangerous side-effect is agranulocytosis (1/250, more in PTU); this is an idiosyncratic reaction which does not stop on cessation of drug). Others include gra ...

See also:

Graves-Basedow disease, Graves-Basedow disease - Signs and symptoms, Graves-Basedow disease - Diagnosis, Graves-Basedow disease - Pathophysiology, Graves-Basedow disease - Treatment, Graves-Basedow disease - Antithyroid drugs, Graves-Basedow disease - Radioiodine, Graves-Basedow disease - Surgery, Graves-Basedow disease - Eye disease, Graves-Basedow disease - If left untreated, Graves-Basedow disease - Epidemiology, Graves-Basedow disease - History, Graves-Basedow disease - Bibliography, Graves-Basedow disease - External link

Read more here: » Graves-Basedow disease: Encyclopedia II - Graves-Basedow disease - Treatment

Bundaberg has attracted much national media attention in 2005 due to the alleged incompetence of a surgical director, Jayant Patel, who has been implicated in the deaths of up to 87 patients. Bundaberg also was the location of another health-related disaster in 1928, when 12 children died shortly after receiving injections of diphtheria vaccine. At the time, the vaccine was created by the toxin-antitoxin, or TAT process, where diphtheria toxin was combined with antibodies from horses, which served to eliminate the toxicity of t ...

See also:

Bundaberg Queensland, Bundaberg Queensland - Bundaberg public health problems, Bundaberg Queensland - External link

Read more here: » Bundaberg Queensland: Encyclopedia II - Bundaberg Queensland - Bundaberg public health problems

2001 anthrax attacks - The attacks. September 11, 2001 attacks September 17 or September 18: Attack #1 - Five anthrax letters are believed to have been mailed around this time (Trenton, New Jersey postmark dated September 18), targeting news media: ABC News, CBS News, NBC News and the New York Post, all in New York City; and the National Enquirer at American Media, Inc. in Boca Raton, Florida, which publishes supermarket tabloids. (Only the New York Post and N ...

See also:

2001 anthrax attacks, 2001 anthrax attacks - Overview, 2001 anthrax attacks - Investigation, 2001 anthrax attacks - A person of interest, 2001 anthrax attacks - The anthrax, 2001 anthrax attacks - The Princeton mailbox, 2001 anthrax attacks - The return address, 2001 anthrax attacks - The notes, 2001 anthrax attacks - Journalists, 2001 anthrax attacks - Gary Matsumoto, 2001 anthrax attacks - Scott Shane, 2001 anthrax attacks - Amateur investigators, 2001 anthrax attacks - Barbara Hatch Rosenberg, 2001 anthrax attacks - Don Foster, 2001 anthrax attacks - Ed Lake, 2001 anthrax attacks - Richard M. Smith, 2001 anthrax attacks - Ross E. Getman, 2001 anthrax attacks - Robert Pate, 2001 anthrax attacks - Kenneth J. Dillon, 2001 anthrax attacks - Comments from bio-weapons experts, 2001 anthrax attacks - Kenneth Alibek, 2001 anthrax attacks - William C. Patrick III, 2001 anthrax attacks - Richard O. Spertzel, 2001 anthrax attacks - Comments from government officials, 2001 anthrax attacks - Tom Carey, 2001 anthrax attacks - James Fitzgerald, 2001 anthrax attacks - Ari Fleischer, 2001 anthrax attacks - Aftermath, 2001 anthrax attacks - Contamination and cleanup, 2001 anthrax attacks - Political effects, 2001 anthrax attacks - Health, 2001 anthrax attacks - Timeline, 2001 anthrax attacks - The attacks, 2001 anthrax attacks - Related events

Read more here: » 2001 anthrax attacks: Encyclopedia II - 2001 anthrax attacks - Timeline

Damage to the villi reduces the ability of the intestines to absorb nutrients, and it is believed that the resulting nutritional deficiencies likely cause the wide spectrum of symptoms associated with the disorder. Coeliac disease may lead to digestive problems, such as indigestion, heartburn and irritable bowel syndrome, unexplained weight loss or other signs of nutritional deficiency due to malabsorption, and a wide range of other problems in different bodily systems, including t ...

See also:

Coeliac disease, Coeliac disease - Signs and symptoms, Coeliac disease - Diagnosis, Coeliac disease - Tests, Coeliac disease - Biopsy appearance, Coeliac disease - Causes, Coeliac disease - Pathophysiology, Coeliac disease - Treatment, Coeliac disease - Epidemiology, Coeliac disease - Social impact, Coeliac disease - Lifelong diet, Coeliac disease - Coeliacs and the Eucharist, Coeliac disease - Coeliacs and Passover, Coeliac disease - Footnotes

Read more here: » Coeliac disease: Encyclopedia II - Coeliac disease - Signs and symptoms

In many ways, ferrets act like kittens that never grow up. They have energy, curiosity, and potential for chaos all their lives, and are always keenly aware of their surroundings. However, they are far more people-oriented than cats, and most actively elicit play with their owners. As a pet, ferrets rank third in the U.S., behind dogs and cats. Ferrets are sometimes accused of being dangerous to small children, but this claim is false -- proportionally, ferrets do much less harm to children than dogs or cats. Their lifespan can vary widely, but most often falls between six and eight years. See also:

Ferret, Ferret - History, Ferret - Ferreting, Ferret - Ferrets as pets, Ferret - Dangers to ferrets, Ferret - Diet, Ferret - Activity, Ferret - Play, Ferret - Ferrets and children, Ferret - Social nature, Ferret - Grooming and care, Ferret - Travel with ferrets, Ferret - Other uses of ferrets, Ferret - Ferret biology, Ferret - Adrenal disease, Ferret - Insulinoma, Ferret - Viral diseases, Ferret - Waardenburg Syndrome, Ferret - Terminology and Coloring, Ferret - Ferrets as pests, Ferret - Ferrets in literature and the media, Ferret - Legality, Ferret - Australia, Ferret - Canada, Ferret - New Zealand, Ferret - Poland, Ferret - United States, Ferret - United Kingdom

Read more here: » Ferret: Encyclopedia II - Ferret - Ferrets as pets

Chlamydophila pneumoniae is a common cause of pneumonia around the world. Chlamydophila pneumoniae is typically acquired by otherwise healthy people and is a form of community-acquired pneumonia. Because treatment and diagnosis are different from historically recognized causes such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, pneumonia caused by Chlamydophila pneumoniae is categorized as an "atypical pn ...

See also:

Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Life cycle and method of infection, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Pneumonia caused by Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Symptoms and diagnosis, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Treatment and prognosis, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Epidemiology and prevention, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Other illnesses caused by Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Links between Chlamydophila pneumoniae and chronic inflammatory diseases, Chlamydophila pneumoniae - External link

Read more here: » Chlamydophila pneumoniae: Encyclopedia II - Chlamydophila pneumoniae - Pneumonia caused by Chlamydophila pneumoniae

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine. It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries b ...

See also:

Immunology, Immunology - Histological examination of the immune system, Immunology - Classical immunology, Immunology - Clinical immunology, Immunology - Immunotherapy, Immunology - Diagnostic immunology, Immunology - Evolutionary immunology

Read more here: » Immunology: Encyclopedia II - Immunology - Classical immunology

H5N1 is a type of avian influenza virus (bird flu virus) that has mutated[7] through antigenic drift into dozens of highly pathogenic varieties, but all currently belonging to genotype Z of avian influenza virus H5N1. Genotype Z emerged through reassortment in 2002 from earlier highly pathogenic genotypes of H5N1[8] that first appeared in China in 1996 in birds and i ...

See also:

H5N1, H5N1 - Transmission and infection, H5N1 - Global spread, H5N1 - Preparations for a potential influenza pandemic, H5N1 - Technical, H5N1 - Terminology, H5N1 - H5N1 virus structure

Read more here: » H5N1: Encyclopedia II - H5N1 - Technical

Transplant rejection - Hyperacute rejection. Hyperacute rejection is a complement-mediated response in recipients with pre-existing antibodies to the donor (for example, ABO blood type antibodies). Hyperacute rejection occurs within minutes and the transplant must be immediately removed to prevent a severe systemic inflammatory response. Rapid coagulation of the blood occurs. This is a particular risk in kidney transplants, and so a prospective cytotoxic crossmatch is performed prior to kidney transplantation to ...

See also:

Transplant rejection, Transplant rejection - Types of rejection, Transplant rejection - Hyperacute rejection, Transplant rejection - Acute rejection, Transplant rejection - Chronic rejection, Transplant rejection - Prevention of rejection, Transplant rejection - Treatment of rejection

Read more here: » Transplant rejection: Encyclopedia II - Transplant rejection - Types of rejection

Snake venom is produced by glands below the eye and delivered to the victim through tubular or channelled fangs. Snake poisons contain a variety of peptide toxins. Snakes use their venom principally for hunting, though the threat of being bitten is used for defence. Snake bites cause pain, swelling, tissue damage, low blood pressure and convulsions (according to the species of snake). Antivenin is used in the treatment of venomous bites. It is created by injecting a small amount of the targeted venom into an animal such as a sheep, ho ...

See also:

Venom poison, Venom poison - Snake venom

Read more here: » Venom poison: Encyclopedia II - Venom poison - Snake venom

There are three general types of muscle: Cardiac muscle is a specialized kind of muscle found only within the heart. It cannot get tired and is "involuntary". Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by tendons to bone and is used to affect skeletal movement such as locomotion. It gets tired. Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within structures such as the intestines, throat and blood vess ...

See also:

Muscle, Muscle - Types, Muscle - Anatomy, Muscle - Physiology, Muscle - Nervous control, Muscle - Efferent leg, Muscle - Afferent leg, Muscle - Role in health and disease, Muscle - Exercise, Muscle - Disease, Muscle - The strongest human muscle, Muscle - Efficiency, Muscle - Muscle evolution

Read more here: » Muscle: Encyclopedia II - Muscle - Types

Myasthenia can be a difficult diagnosis, as the symptoms can be subtle and hard to distinguish from both normal variants and other neurological disorders (Scherer et al 2005). A thorough physical examination can reveal easy fatiguability, with the weakness improving after rest and worsening again on repeat of the exertion testing. Applying ice to the weak muscle groups may characteristically improve the weakness. See also:

Myasthenia gravis, Myasthenia gravis - Signs and symptoms, Myasthenia gravis - Diagnosis, Myasthenia gravis - Blood tests, Myasthenia gravis - Single-fiber electromyography, Myasthenia gravis - Edrophonium test, Myasthenia gravis - Imaging, Myasthenia gravis - Pulmonary function test, Myasthenia gravis - Pathophysiology, Myasthenia gravis - Epidemiology, Myasthenia gravis - Treatment, Myasthenia gravis - Prognosis

Read more here: » Myasthenia gravis: Encyclopedia II - Myasthenia gravis - Diagnosis

Multiple myeloma - Investigations. The existence of unexplained anemia, kidney dysfunction, a high erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and a high serum protein (especially raised globulin) may suggest further testing. A doctor will then order protein electrophoresis of the blood and urine, on which a paraprotein (monoclonal protein, or M protein) band can be noticed. A type of paraprotein is the Bence Jones protein which is paraprotein composed of free light chains (see below). Quantitative measurements of the p ...

See also:

Multiple myeloma, Multiple myeloma - Signs and symptoms, Multiple myeloma - Diagnosis, Multiple myeloma - Investigations, Multiple myeloma - Workup, Multiple myeloma - Criteria, Multiple myeloma - Staging, Multiple myeloma - Pathophysiology, Multiple myeloma - Epidemiology, Multiple myeloma - Treatment, Multiple myeloma - Initial therapy, Multiple myeloma - Relapse, Multiple myeloma - Prognosis, Multiple myeloma - Patients

Read more here: » Multiple myeloma: Encyclopedia II - Multiple myeloma - Diagnosis