Due to the fragmentary attestation widely diverging interpretations are possible. The suggested historical interpretations of Macedonian include (Mallory and Adams (1997), p. 361): a Greek dialect mixed with Illyrian languages or the Thracian language, suggested by Kretschmer (1896) and E. Schwyzer (1959) a Greek dialect with a non-Indo-European substratal influence, suggested by M .Sakellariou (1983) an Illyrian dialect mixed with Greek (suggested by K. O. Müller (1825) and by G. Bonfante 1987) an independent Indo-European language close to Greek, Thracian and Phrygian languages ...

See also:

Ancient Macedonian language, Ancient Macedonian language - Properties, Ancient Macedonian language - Classification, Ancient Macedonian language - Graeco-Macedonian Group, Ancient Macedonian language - Ancient Greek dialect, Ancient Macedonian language - Independent Palaeo-Balkan language, Ancient Macedonian language - Classical sources, Ancient Macedonian language - Adoption of the Attic dialect, Ancient Macedonian language - Sample glossary

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There are enough Thracian examples with characteristic Satem sound-shifts to include Thracian in the Satem group of Indo-European languages. Thracian is often considered to have been on the same language branch as the extinct Dacian language (viewed as a northern dialect of Thracian), though some Thracologists think Dacian may have been on a separate branch. Some scholars see a relation between Thracian and the ancient Macedonian language, or the Phrygian language. Older models often linked Thracian to the Illyrian language, or to the Armenian language, but re ...

See also:

Thracian language, Thracian language - Sources, Thracian language - Classification, Thracian language - Connections to Albanian, Thracian language - Connections to Slavic and Baltic, Thracian language - Thracian as a Centum language, Thracian language - Geographic distribution, Thracian language - Vocabulary

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A sizable body of Phrygian words are theoretically known; however, the meaning and etymologies and even correct forms of many Phrygian words (mostly extracted from inscriptions) are still being debated. A famous Phrygian word is bekos, meaning "bread". According to Herodotus (Histories 2.9) Pharaoh Psammetichus I wanted to establish the original language. For this purpose, he ordered two children to be reared by a shepherd, forbidding him to let them hear a single word, and charging him to report the children's first utt ...

See also:

Phrygian language, Phrygian language - Grammar, Phrygian language - Vocabulary

Read more here: » Phrygian language: Encyclopedia II - Phrygian language - Vocabulary

Its structure, what can be recovered from it, was typically Indo-European, with nouns declined for case (at least 4), gender (3) and number (singular and plural), while the verbs are conjugated for tense, voice, mood, person and number. No single word is attested in all its inflectional forms. Phrygian seems to exhibit an augment, like Greek and Armenian, c.f. eberet, probably corresponding to PIE *e-bher- ...

See also:

Phrygian language, Phrygian language - Grammar, Phrygian language - Vocabulary

Read more here: » Phrygian language: Encyclopedia II - Phrygian language - Grammar

The most reliable Thracian words are the words which have been explicitly cited and described as Thracian by the ancient authors. There are not many such cited words. Elements appearing in typical Thracian two-component geographical names (for example, Poltymbria) are another source for the reconstructed vocabulary. The Thracian vocabulary includes as well many more words whose meanings are conjectured, speculative, or disputed. Indeed, their status as actual words (as opposed to parts of words) is speculative in many cases. Most of t ...

See also:

Thracian language, Thracian language - Sources, Thracian language - Classification, Thracian language - Connections to Albanian, Thracian language - Connections to Slavic and Baltic, Thracian language - Thracian as a Centum language, Thracian language - Geographic distribution, Thracian language - Vocabulary

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Alexander the Great (in Greek Μέγας Αλέξανδρος, transliterated Megas Alexandros; born in Pella, Macedon, in July, 356 BC, died in Babylon, on June 10, 323 BC), King of Macedon 336–323 BC, is arguably the most successful military commander in world history, conquering most of the known world before his death. Alexander is also known in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian work Arda Wiraz Nāmag as "the accursed Alexander" due to his conquest of the ...

Including:

• Alexander the Great - Early life
• Alexander the Great - The ascent of Macedon
• Alexander the Great - Period of conquests
• Alexander the Great - The defeat of the Persian Empire
• Alexander the Great - The invasion of India
• Alexander the Great - After India
• Alexander the Great - Alexander's marriages and sexuality
• Alexander the Great - The army of Alexander the Great before the Battle of Gaugamela
• Alexander the Great - Infantry
• Alexander the Great - Cavalry
• Alexander the Great - Death
• Alexander the Great - Legacy and division of the empire
• Alexander the Great - Timeline
• Alexander the Great - Alexander's character
• Alexander the Great - Stories and legends
• Alexander the Great - Ancient sources
• Alexander the Great - Alexander's legend
• Alexander the Great - Alexander's legend in non-Western sources
• Alexander the Great - Main towns founded by Alexander
• Alexander the Great - Alexander in popular media
• Alexander the Great - Note

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As an extinct language that has no literature left, there's little known about it, but some Thracian words can be found cited in ancient texts [1]. In addition there are many probable words extracted from names, toponyms, and names of rivers mentioned in ancient sources. A number of possible Thracian words are found in inscriptions (most of them written with Greek script) on buildings, coins, and other artifacts. Only four Thracian insciptions have been found. One is a gold ring found in 1912 in the town of Ezerovo, Bulgaria. The ring ...

See also:

Thracian language, Thracian language - Sources, Thracian language - Classification, Thracian language - Connections to Albanian, Thracian language - Connections to Slavic and Baltic, Thracian language - Thracian as a Centum language, Thracian language - Geographic distribution, Thracian language - Vocabulary

Read more here: » Thracian language: Encyclopedia II - Thracian language - Sources

The controversy whether or not ancient Macedonia should be considered a Hellenic state is addressed variously: based on ancient sources, and on linguistic evidence. Neither approach is conclusive, Herodotus seems to assert that the Macedonian aristocracy was of Achaean origin while Macedonian people were of Dorian stock. Linguistics seems to point inconclusively to either Macedonian as an archaic form of Greek, Macedonian as part of a Graeco-Macedonian subfamily of Indo-European, or Macedonian as an in ...

See also:

Macedon, Macedon - Early history, Macedon - Expansion, Macedon - Decline, Macedon - Calendar, Macedon - Language, Macedon - Hellenic controversy, Macedon - Herodotus, Macedon - Linguistics

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Macedonian language - Macedonian view. According to the Macedonian view, now prevalent and official in the books in Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian was the first official language of the Slavs, thanks to the St. Cyril and St. Methodius's introduction of Slavic literacy language through the Glagolitic script, that was based on Southern Macedonian dialect from the neighbourhood of Thessaloniki (Solun), the home of the two saints. Later on, Macedonia fell under the reign of Bulgarians, and the Byzantines regarded ...

See also:

Macedonian language, Macedonian language - History, Macedonian language - Different political views on the language, Macedonian language - Macedonian view, Macedonian language - Bulgarian view, Macedonian language - Serbian view, Macedonian language - Greek view, Macedonian language - Alphabet, Macedonian language - Common Phrases, Macedonian language - Classification and related languages, Macedonian language - Some unique features of the Macedonian language

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This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet Greek language - Vowel sounds. Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic: Close vowels, when found in unstressed final syllables, tend to be voiceless, particularly if they are between voiceless consonants [e.g.: φάσης /ˈfasis/ → /ˈfasi̥s/ (→ /f ...

See also:

Greek language, Greek language - History, Greek language - Classification, Greek language - Geographic distribution, Greek language - Official status, Greek language - Phonology, Greek language - Vowel sounds, Greek language - Consonants, Greek language - Sandhi rules, Greek language - Orthography, Greek language - Historical sound changes, Greek language - Grammar, Greek language - Writing system, Greek language - Examples, Greek language - Some common words and phrases, Greek language - The Iliad in Homeric Greek Lines 1-7, Greek language - The Lord's Prayer in Greek Matt. 6:9-13, Greek language - The Nicene Creed in Greek, Greek language - Literature, Greek language - Typography, Greek language - Lexica, Greek language - Spell checkers, Greek language - Special characters

Read more here: » Greek language: Encyclopedia II - Greek language - Phonology

The various subgroups of the Indo-European family include (in historical order of their first attestation): Anatolian languages — earliest attested branch, from the 18th century BC; extinct, most notable was the language of the Hittites. Indo-Iranian languages, descending from a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan, including Sanskrit, attested from the 2nd millennium BC Iranian languages, attested from roughly 1000 BC, including Avestan and Persian. Greek language — ...

See also:

Indo-European languages, Indo-European languages - Classification, Indo-European languages - Satem and Centum languages, Indo-European languages - Suggested superfamilies, Indo-European languages - History, Indo-European languages - Kurgan hypothesis, Indo-European languages - Competing hypotheses, Indo-European languages - Sound changes

Read more here: » Indo-European languages: Encyclopedia II - Indo-European languages - Classification

The various subgroups of the Indo-European family include (in historical order of their first attestation): Anatolian languages — earliest attested branch, from the 18th century BC; extinct, most notable was the language of the Hittites. Indo-Iranian languages, descending from a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan languages, including Sanskrit, attested from the 2nd millennium BC Iranian languages, attested from roughly 1000 BC, including Avestan and Persian Dardic languages ...

See also:

Indo-European languages, Indo-European languages - Classification, Indo-European languages - Satem and Centum languages, Indo-European languages - Suggested superfamilies, Indo-European languages - History, Indo-European languages - Kurgan hypothesis, Indo-European languages - Competing hypotheses, Indo-European languages - Sound changes

Read more here: » Indo-European languages: Encyclopedia II - Indo-European languages - Classification

Further than belonging to the Indo-European language family, probably as a centum language, the relation of Illyrian to other ancient and modern languages remains unclear because no writings in Illyrian have been found. Today, the main source of authoritative information about the Illyrian language consists of a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of Illyrian anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms. A grouping of Illyrian with the Messapian language has been proposed for about a century, ...

See also:

Illyrian languages, Illyrian languages - Language affinity, Illyrian languages - Outside influences, Illyrian languages - Illyrian words, Illyrian languages - Illyrian names, Illyrian languages - Notes, Illyrian languages - External link

Read more here: » Illyrian languages: Encyclopedia II - Illyrian languages - Language affinity

Romanian language - Dacian language. The Dacian language was an Indo-European language spoken by the ancient Dacians. It may have been the first language to influence the Latin spoken in Dacia, but there is very little knowledge about it. About 300 words found only in Romanian (in all dialects) or with a cognate in the Albanian language may be inherited from Dacian, many of them being related to pastoral life (for example: balaur=dragon; brânză=cheese; mal=shore; see: Eastern Romance substratum). Some linguists have asserted tha ...

See also:

Romanian language, Romanian language - History, Romanian language - Classification and related languages, Romanian language - Contacts with other languages, Romanian language - Dacian language, Romanian language - Balkan linguistic union, Romanian language - Slavic languages, Romanian language - Other influences, Romanian language - International words, Romanian language - Geographic distribution, Romanian language - Official status, Romanian language - Dialects and regional varieties, Romanian language - Grammar, Romanian language - Sounds, Romanian language - Diphthongs, Romanian language - Triphthongs, Romanian language - Phonetic changes, Romanian language - Writing system, Romanian language - Romanian alphabet, Romanian language - Reading rules, Romanian language - Group of letters, Romanian language - Punctuation and Capitalization, Romanian language - Language sample, Romanian language - Common words and phrases, Romanian language - Notes

Read more here: » Romanian language: Encyclopedia II - Romanian language - Contacts with other languages

Greek is a Centum language, which would place a Graeco-Aryan protolanguage before Satemization, making it identical to late PIE. Proto-Greek does appear to have been affected by the general trend of Palatalization characteristic of the Satem group, evidenced for example by the (post-Mycenaean) change of labiovelars into dentals before e (e.g. kwe > te "and"), but the Satemizing influence appears to have reached Greek only after it had lost the palatovelars (i. ...

See also:

Proto-Greek language, Proto-Greek language - Phonology, Proto-Greek language - Morphology, Proto-Greek language - Noun, Proto-Greek language - Pronoun, Proto-Greek language - Verb, Proto-Greek language - Numerals, Proto-Greek language - Example text

Read more here: » Proto-Greek language: Encyclopedia II - Proto-Greek language - Phonology

Alexander the Great - The defeat of the Persian Empire. Alexander's army had crossed the Hellespont with about 40,000 soldiers---primarily Macedonians [1] and Greeks, but also including some Thracians, Paionians and Illyrians. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis and proceeded down the Ionian coast. At H ...

See also:

Alexander the Great, Alexander the Great - Early life, Alexander the Great - The ascent of Macedon, Alexander the Great - Period of conquests, Alexander the Great - The defeat of the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great - The invasion of India, Alexander the Great - After India, Alexander the Great - Alexander's marriages and sexuality, Alexander the Great - The army of Alexander the Great before the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander the Great - Infantry, Alexander the Great - Cavalry, Alexander the Great - Death, Alexander the Great - Legacy and division of the empire, Alexander the Great - Timeline, Alexander the Great - Alexander's character, Alexander the Great - Stories and legends, Alexander the Great - Ancient sources, Alexander the Great - Alexander's legend, Alexander the Great - Alexander's legend in non-Western sources, Alexander the Great - Main towns founded by Alexander, Alexander the Great - Alexander in popular media, Alexander the Great - Note

Read more here: » Alexander the Great: Encyclopedia II - Alexander the Great - Period of conquests

This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet Greek language - Vowel sounds. Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic: Close vowels, when found in unstressed final syllables, tend to be voiceless, particularly if they are between voiceless consonants [e.g.: φάσης /ˈfasis/ → /ˈfasi̥s/ (→ /f ...

See also:

Greek language, Greek language - History, Greek language - Classification, Greek language - Geographic distribution, Greek language - Official status, Greek language - Phonology, Greek language - Vowel sounds, Greek language - Consonants, Greek language - Sandhi rules, Greek language - Orthography, Greek language - Historical sound changes, Greek language - Grammar, Greek language - Writing system, Greek language - Examples, Greek language - Some common words and phrases, Greek language - The Iliad in Homeric Greek Lines 1-7, Greek language - The Lord's Prayer in Greek Matt. 6:9-13, Greek language - The Nicene Creed in Greek, Greek language - Literature, Greek language - Typography, Greek language - Lexica, Greek language - Spell checkers

Read more here: » Greek language: Encyclopedia II - Greek language - Phonology

The Ancient Greek language (and also the Ancient Macedonian language) would have become an important external influence on Illyrian-speakers who occupied lands adjacent to ancient Greeks and Ancient Macedonians, and this is indicated by the adoption of Greek names by prominent Illyrians (Cleitus, Glaukias) in the south. As Greek influence increased, some Illyrian-speakers would have abandoned their language and adopted Greek. Invading Celts who settled on lands occupied by Illyrians brought the Illyrians into contact with the Celtic l ...

See also:

Illyrian languages, Illyrian languages - Language affinity, Illyrian languages - Outside influences, Illyrian languages - Illyrian words, Illyrian languages - Illyrian names, Illyrian languages - Notes, Illyrian languages - External link

Read more here: » Illyrian languages: Encyclopedia II - Illyrian languages - Outside influences

Only a few Illyrian words are cited in Classical sources by Roman or Greek writers: brisa, "husk of grapes" [citation needed] rhinos, "fog, cloud"; compared to Old Albanian ren, modern Albanian re, "cloud" sabaia, sabaium, sabaius, "a type of beer" sibina (Lat.), sibyna (Lat.), sybina (Lat.); σιβυνη (Gk.), σιβυνης (Gk.), συβινη (Gk.), ζιβυνη (Gk.): "a hunting spea ...

See also:

Illyrian languages, Illyrian languages - Language affinity, Illyrian languages - Outside influences, Illyrian languages - Illyrian words, Illyrian languages - Illyrian names, Illyrian languages - Notes, Illyrian languages - External link

Read more here: » Illyrian languages: Encyclopedia II - Illyrian languages - Illyrian words

English text: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Contemporary Romanian - highlighted words are French or Italian loanwords: Toate fiinţele umane se nasc libere şi egale în demnitate şi în drepturi. Ele sunt înzestrate cu raţiune şi conştiinţă şi trebuie să se comporte unele faţă de alte ...

See also:

Romanian language, Romanian language - History, Romanian language - Classification and related languages, Romanian language - Contacts with other languages, Romanian language - Dacian language, Romanian language - Balkan linguistic union, Romanian language - Slavic languages, Romanian language - Other influences, Romanian language - International words, Romanian language - Geographic distribution, Romanian language - Official status, Romanian language - Dialects and regional varieties, Romanian language - Grammar, Romanian language - Sounds, Romanian language - Diphthongs, Romanian language - Triphthongs, Romanian language - Phonetic changes, Romanian language - Writing system, Romanian language - Romanian alphabet, Romanian language - Reading rules, Romanian language - Group of letters, Romanian language - Punctuation and Capitalization, Romanian language - Language sample, Romanian language - Common words and phrases, Romanian language - Notes

Read more here: » Romanian language: Encyclopedia II - Romanian language - Language sample