Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly-produced inorganic chemicals. Before the start of WWI most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with nascent hydrogen; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by quicklime, the salt most generally used being the chloride (sal-ammoniac) thus 2NH4Cl + 2CaO → CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2See also:

Ammonia, Ammonia - History, Ammonia - Production, Ammonia - Properties, Ammonia - Formation of salts, Ammonia - Acidity, Ammonia - Formation of other compounds, Ammonia - Ammonia as a ligand, Ammonia - Uses, Ammonia - Liquid ammonia as a solvent, Ammonia - Solubility of salts, Ammonia - Solutions of metals, Ammonia - Redox properties of liquid ammonia, Ammonia - Detection and determination, Ammonia - Safety precautions, Ammonia - Toxicity, Ammonia - Household use, Ammonia - Laboratory use of ammonia solutions, Ammonia - Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid, Ammonia - Reference, Ammonia - Bibliography

Read more here: » Ammonia: Encyclopedia II - Ammonia - Production

See also:

Ammonia, Ammonia - History, Ammonia - Production, Ammonia - Properties, Ammonia - Formation of salts, Ammonia - Acidity, Ammonia - Formation of other compounds, Ammonia - Ammonia as a ligand, Ammonia - Uses, Ammonia - Liquid ammonia as a solvent, Ammonia - Solubility of salts, Ammonia - Solutions of metals, Ammonia - Redox properties of liquid ammonia, Ammonia - Detection and determination, Ammonia - Safety precautions, Ammonia - Toxicity, Ammonia - Household use, Ammonia - Laboratory use of ammonia solutions, Ammonia - Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid, Ammonia - Reference, Ammonia - Bibliography

Read more here: » Ammonia: Encyclopedia II - Ammonia - Uses

Ammonia - Toxicity. The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthase, and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine. However fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is class ...

See also:

Ammonia, Ammonia - History, Ammonia - Production, Ammonia - Properties, Ammonia - Formation of salts, Ammonia - Acidity, Ammonia - Formation of other compounds, Ammonia - Ammonia as a ligand, Ammonia - Uses, Ammonia - Liquid ammonia as a solvent, Ammonia - Solubility of salts, Ammonia - Solutions of metals, Ammonia - Redox properties of liquid ammonia, Ammonia - Detection and determination, Ammonia - Safety precautions, Ammonia - Toxicity, Ammonia - Household use, Ammonia - Laboratory use of ammonia solutions, Ammonia - Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid, Ammonia - Reference, Ammonia - Bibliography

Read more here: » Ammonia: Encyclopedia II - Ammonia - Safety precautions

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. At standard temperature and pressure ammonia is a gas. It is toxic and corrosive to some materials, and has a characteristic pungent odor. An ammonia molecule is not flat, but has the shape of a compressed tetrahedron known as a trigonal pyramid, as would be expected from VSEPR theory. This shape gives the molecule an overall dipole moment and makes it polar so that ammonia very readily dissolves in water. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lon ...

Including:

Ammonia - History Ammonia - Production Ammonia - Properties
Ammonia - Acidity Ammonia - Formation of other compounds Ammonia - Ammonia as a ligand
Ammonia - Uses Ammonia - Liquid ammonia as a solvent
Ammonia - Solubility of salts Ammonia - Solutions of metals Ammonia - Redox properties of liquid ammonia
Ammonia - Detection and determination Ammonia - Safety precautions
Ammonia - Toxicity Ammonia - Household use Ammonia - Laboratory use of ammonia solutions Ammonia - Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid
Ammonia - Reference Ammonia - Bibliography

Read more here: » Ammonia: Encyclopedia - Ammonia

The chemical compound ammonium nitrate, the nitrate of ammonia with chemical formula NH4NO3, is commonly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer. Ammonium nitrate - Use in explosives. Ammonium nitrate has found many uses as a strong oxidizer, primarily as a component of explosives. In this case, it is mixed with a hydrocarbon, usually Diesel fuel (oil) or, less commonly, kerosene. Because of the ready availability in bulk of the raw materials, ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO) ...

Including:

Ammonium nitrate - Use in explosives Ammonium nitrate - Disasters
Ammonium nitrate - Historically significant accidental explosions
Ammonium nitrate - Other uses Ammonium nitrate - History Ammonium nitrate - Production

Read more here: » Ammonium nitrate: Encyclopedia - Ammonium nitrate

Urea is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, with the formula CON2H4 or (NH2)2CO. Urea is also known as carbamide, especially in the recommended International Non-proprietary Names (rINN) in use in Europe. For example, the medicinal compound hydroxyurea (old British Approved Name) is now hydroxycarbamide. Urea - Physiology. The individual atoms of urea come from carbon dioxide, water, aspartate and ammonia in a ...

Including:

Urea - Physiology Urea - Discovery Urea - Commercial Production Urea - Industrial use Urea - Laboratory use Urea - Medical use
Urea - Drug use Urea - Physiological diagnosis Urea - Other diagnostic use

Read more here: » Urea: Encyclopedia - Urea

The production and distribution of hydrogen for the purpose of transportation is being tested in limited markets around the world, particularly in Iceland, Germany, California, Japan and Canada. There are several processes which can yield hydrogen via water splitting using various energy sources at different efficiencies and costs. As of 2005, 48% of hydrogen production (for industrial processes) is from natural gas, 30% is from oil, 18% is from coal, and 4% is from electrolysis. ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Production

The production and distribution of hydrogen for the purpose of transportation is being tested in limited markets around the world, particularly in Iceland, Germany, California, Japan and Canada. There are several processes which can yield hydrogen via water splitting using various energy sources at different efficiencies and costs. As of 2005, 48% of hydrogen production (for industrial processes) is from natural gas, 30% is from oil, 18% is from coal, and 4% is from electrolysis. ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Production

Electricity has revolutionized the quality of human life since the late 19th century by enabling easier use of available energy sources. Inventions such as the dynamo and electric lighting sparked its growth on direct current. Later the alternator and alternating current enabled electric power transmission over long distances in a grand scale. Currently, grid load balancing is done by varying the output of generators. However, electricity is hard to store efficiently for future use. The most cost-efficient and widespread system for la ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Rationale

The large market and sharply rising prices have also stimulated great interest in alternate, cheaper means of hydrogen production. One particular method that has gained considerable commercial interest and U.S. government funding is high-temperature thermochemical electrolysis of water (H2O). Some prototype nuclear reactors operate at 850 to 1000 degrees Celsius, considerably hotter than existing commercial plants. Thermochemical electrolysis of water at these temperatures converts more of the initial heat energy into chemical ene ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - The short-term future

Hydrogen seems unlikely to be the cheapest carrier of energy over long distances in the near future. Advances in electrolysis and fuel cell technology have not addressed the underlying cost problem yet. As of 2005, the cheapest method to move energy around the planet is in uranium by rail, but nuclear power has received negative responses. The next cheapest and currently most widely used is in the form of oil in a pipeline or supertanker, or coal by rail or bulk carrier vessel. Natural gas pipelines and liquified natural gas tankers a ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Transportation

Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed. Hydrogen is used in chemical reactions - the Haber process and hydrocracking - as described in "The present" above. Hydrogen economy - Energy source. The underlying premise of a hydrogen economy is that fuel cells will replace internal combustion engines and turbines as the primary way to convert chemical power into motive and electrical power. The reason to expect this changeover is that fuel cells, being electrochemical, can be more efficient than heat engines. Currently, fuel cells are very expensive, but there is ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Consumption

Storage is the main technological problem of a viable hydrogen economy. Some attention has been given to the role of hydrogen to provide grid energy storage for unpredictable energy sources, like wind power. The primary difficulty with using hydrogen for grid energy storage is that converting power to hydrogen and back is not cheap. Hydrocarbons are stored extensively at the point of use, be it in the gasoline tanks of automobiles or propane tanks hung on the side of barbecue grills. Hydrogen, in comparison, is quite expensive to stor ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Storage

Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed. Hydrogen is used in chemical reactions - the Haber process and hydrocracking - as described in "The present" above. Hydrogen economy - Energy source. The underlying premise of a hydrogen economy is that fuel cells will replace internal combustion engines and turbines as the primary way to convert chemical power into motive and electrical power. The reason to expect this changeover is that fuel cells, being electrochemical, can be more efficient than heat engines. Currently, fuel cells are very expensive, but there is ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Consumption

Hydrogen production is a large and growing industry. Globally, about 50 million metric tons of hydrogen were produced in 2004; the growth rate is about 10% per year. The energy in the current flow corresponds to about 200 gigawatts. Within the U.S., production was about 11 million metric tons, or 48 GW (10.8% of the average U.S. total electric production of 442 GW in 2003). Because hydrogen storage and transport are so expensive, most hydrogen is currently produced locally, and used immediately, generally by the same company producing it. As of 2005, the economic value of all h ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - The present

The large market and sharply rising prices have also stimulated great interest in alternate, cheaper means of hydrogen production. One particular method that has gained considerable commercial interest and U.S. government funding is high-temperature thermochemical electrolysis of water (H2O). Some prototype nuclear reactors operate at 850 to 1000 degrees Celsius, considerably hotter than existing commercial plants. Thermochemical electrolysis of water at these temperatures converts more of the initial heat energy into chemical ene ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - The short-term future

Several domestic US automobile manufactures have committed to develop vehicles using hydrogen. (They had previously committed to producing electric vehicles in California, a program now defunct at their behest.) Critics argue this "commitment" is merely a ploy to sidestep current calls for increased efficiency in gasoline and diesel fuel powered vehicles. Some hospitals have installed combined electrolyzer-storage-fuel cell units for local emergency power. These are advantageous for emergency use due to their low maintenance requirement and ease of location compa ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Examples

Storage is the main technological problem of a viable hydrogen economy. Some attention has been given to the role of hydrogen to provide grid energy storage for unpredictable energy sources, like wind power. The primary difficulty with using hydrogen for grid energy storage is that converting power to hydrogen and back is not cheap. An alternative to using this method is pumped storage. Water turbines and dam infrastructure are currently more economical than electrolysis plants, fuel cells, and hydrogen pipelines. Pumped storage is presently more efficie ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Storage

48% of hydrogen gas is created through the natural gas steam reforming/water gas shift reaction method, outlined above. This creates carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas, as a byproduct. This is usually released into the atmosphere, although there has also been some research into interning it underground or undersea. Recently, there have also been some concerns over possible problems related to hydrogen gas leakage. One issue, which may become more important as hydrogen usage becomes more widespread, is permanent hydrogen ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns

Electricity has revolutionized the quality of human life since the late 19th century by enabling easier use of available energy sources. Inventions such as the dynamo and electric lighting sparked its growth on direct current. Later the alternator and alternating current enabled electric power transmission over long distances in a grand scale. Currently, grid load balancing is done by varying the output of generators. However, electricity is hard to store efficiently for future use. The most cost-efficient and widespread system for la ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Rationale