alkylation

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, benzene was used as an aftershave because of its pleasant smell. Prior to the 1920s, benzene was frequently used as an industrial solvent, especially for degreasing metal. As its toxicity became obvious, other solvents replaced benzene in applications that directly exposed the user to benzene. Benzene was also used to initially decaffeinate coffee by German importer Lugwig Roselius in 1903. This lead to the production of Sanka, -ka for kaffein, but later ...

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Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Many important chemicals are essentially benzene, with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced with another functional group: Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes. Ethylbenzene C6H5-CH2-CH3 Mesitylene C6H3(-CH3)3 Toluene C6H5-CH3 Xylene C6H ...

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Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Electrophilic aromatic substitution is a general method of substituting aromatic rings such as benzene. Benzene is nucleophilic enough, so that in the presence of strong electrophiles such as acylium ions or alkyl carbocations, reaction will occur to ultimately give substituted benzenes. The Friedel-Crafts acylation is a specific example of electrophilic aromatic substitution. The reaction is the a ...

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Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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In 1855, petroleum cracking methods were pioneered by Chemistry Professor Benjamin Silliman, Jr., of Yale University (then Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University). Silliman, like his father, were Skull and Bones members and both Chemistry Professors at SSS. The first thermal cracking method, the Burton process, was invented by William M. Burton; the oil industry first using it to produce gasoline in 1913. Catalytic cracking, based upon a process developed by Dr. Alex Golden Oblad at Standard Oil of Indiana has been used from around 1936. Typical catalysts include alumina ...

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Cracking chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Applications, Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking, Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking, Cracking chemistry - History

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Raney nickel is used in a large number of industrial processes and in organic synthesis because of its stability and high catalytic activity at room temperature.[2][4] It is typically used in the reduction of compounds that have multiple bonds, such as alkynes, alkenes[5], nitriles[6], dienes, aromatics^{See also:}

Raney nickel, Raney nickel - Preparation, Raney nickel - Alloy preparation, Raney nickel - Activation, Raney nickel - Properties, Raney nickel - Applications, Raney nickel - Safety, Raney nickel - Development

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Due to its large surface area and high volume of contained hydrogen gas, dry, activated Raney nickel is a pyrophoric material that should be handled under an inert atmosphere. Raney nickel is typically supplied as a 50% slurry in water. Care should be taken never to expose Raney nickel to air. Even after reaction, Raney nickel contains significant amounts of hydrogen gas, and will ignite when exposed to air. Raney nickel will produce hazardous fumes when burning, and therefore the use of a gas mask is recommended when extinguishing fi ...

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Raney nickel, Raney nickel - Preparation, Raney nickel - Alloy preparation, Raney nickel - Activation, Raney nickel - Properties, Raney nickel - Applications, Raney nickel - Safety, Raney nickel - Development

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Gasoline - Lead. The mixture known as gasoline when used in high compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to ignite early (pre-ignition or detonation) causing a damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging") noise. Early research into this effect was led by A.H. Gibson and Harry Ricardo in England and Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd in the United States. The discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of the practice in the 1920s and hence mo ...

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Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

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Macroscopically Raney nickel looks like a finely divided gray powder. Microscopically, each particle of this powder looks like a three-dimensional mesh, with pores of irregular size and shape of which the vast majority are created during the leaching process. Raney nickel is notable for being thermally and structurally stable as well has having a large BET surface area. These properties are a direct result of the activation process and contribu ...

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Raney nickel, Raney nickel - Preparation, Raney nickel - Alloy preparation, Raney nickel - Activation, Raney nickel - Properties, Raney nickel - Applications, Raney nickel - Safety, Raney nickel - Development

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Many important chemicals are essentially benzene, with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced with another functional group: Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes. Ethylbenzene C6H5-CH2-CH3 Mesitylene C6H3(-CH3)3 Toluene C6H5-CH3 Xylene C6H ...

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Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

Read more here: » Benzene: Encyclopedia II - Benzene - Substituted benzenes

Breathing very high levels of benzene can result in death, while high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the stomach, dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death. The major effect of benzene from chronic (long term) exposure is to the blood. Benzene damages the bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells leading to anemia. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the immune s ...

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Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Benzene may result whenever carbon-rich materials undergo incomplete combustion. It is produced naturally in volcanoes and forest fires, and is also a component of cigarette smoke. Up until World War II, most benzene was produced as a byproduct of coke production in the steel industry. However, in the 1950s, increased demand for benzene, especially from the growing plastics industry, necessitated the production of benzene from petroleum. Today, most benzene comes from the petrochemical industry, with only a sm ...

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Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

Read more here: » Benzene: Encyclopedia II - Benzene - Production

Breathing very high levels of benzene can result in death, while high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the stomach, dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death. The major effect of benzene from chronic (long term) exposure is to the blood. Benzene damages the bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells leading to anemia. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the immune s ...

See also:

Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Anhydrous AuCl3 begins to decompose to AuCl at around 160 °C; however at this will in turn undergo disproportionation at higher temperatures to give gold metal and AuCl3. AuCl3 → AuCl + Cl2 (>160 °C) 3 AuCl → AuCl3 + 2 Au (>420 °C) AuCl3 is a Lewis acid which readily forms complexes. For example with hydrochloric acid, chlorauric acid (HAuCl4) is formed: HCl(aq) + AuCl3(aq) → H+AuCl4−(aq) Ionic chlorides such as KCl will also form the A ...

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GoldIII chloride, GoldIII chloride - Structure, GoldIII chloride - Chemical properties, GoldIII chloride - Preparation, GoldIII chloride - Uses, GoldIII chloride - Precautions, GoldIII chloride - Suppliers/Manufacturers

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The first thermal cracking method, the Burton process, was invented by William M. Burton; the oil industry first using it to produce gasoline in 1913. Catalytic cracking, based upon a process developed by Dr. Alex Golden Oblad at Standard Oil of Indiana has been used from around 1936. Typical catalysts include alumina, silica, zeolites, and various types of clay. ...

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Cracking chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Applications, Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking, Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking, Cracking chemistry - History

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DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology. As cells get older, the amount of DNA damage accumulates overtaking the rate of repair and resulting in a reduction of protein synthesis. As proteins in the cell are used for numerous vital functions, the cell becomes slowly impaired and eventually dies. When enough cells in an organ reach such a state, the organ itself will become compromised and the symptoms of disease begin to manifest. Experimental studies in animals, where genes associated with DNA repair were ...

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DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA damage, DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage, DNA repair - Sources of damage, DNA repair - Types of damage, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms, DNA repair - Single strand damage, DNA repair - Double strand breaks, DNA repair - DNA repair in disease and aging, DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology, DNA repair - DNA repair rate is variable, DNA repair - Hereditary DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Chronic DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Longevity genes and DNA repair, DNA repair - Caloric restriction increases DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA repair and evolution, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms are ancient, DNA repair - Disease death and evolution, DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation, DNA repair - Cancer treatment, DNA repair - Gene therapy, DNA repair - Gene repair

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DNA damage, due to normal metabolic processes inside the cell, occurs at a rate of 50,000 to 500,000 molecular lesions per cell per day. However, many more sources of damage can drive this rate even higher. Whilst this constitutes only 0.0002% of the human genome's 3,000,000,000 (3 billion) bases, a single unrepaired lesion to a critical cancer-related gene (such as a tumor suppressor gene) can have catastrophic consequences for an individual. DNA repair - Nuclea ...

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DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA damage, DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage, DNA repair - Sources of damage, DNA repair - Types of damage, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms, DNA repair - Single strand damage, DNA repair - Double strand breaks, DNA repair - DNA repair in disease and aging, DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology, DNA repair - DNA repair rate is variable, DNA repair - Hereditary DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Chronic DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Longevity genes and DNA repair, DNA repair - Caloric restriction increases DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA repair and evolution, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms are ancient, DNA repair - Disease death and evolution, DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation, DNA repair - Cancer treatment, DNA repair - Gene therapy, DNA repair - Gene repair

Read more here: » DNA repair: Encyclopedia II - DNA repair - DNA damage

Gasoline - Pharmaceutical. Before internal combustion engines were invented in the mid-1800s, gasoline was sold in small bottles as a treatment against lice and their eggs. In those early times, the word "Petrol" was a trade name. This treatment method is no longer common, due to the inherent fire hazard and risk of dermatitis and that gasoline is a carcinogen where continued contact might develop cancerous growths. The word petrol may be derived from Old French pétrole, meaning petroleum: see Etymology. Petrol is also abused as a psychoactive inhalant. See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

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Gasoline contains about 45 megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) or 135MJ/US gallon. Volumetric energy density of some fuels compared to gasoline: A high octane fuel such as LPG has a lower energy content than lower octane gasoline, resulting in an overall lower power output at the regular compression ratio an engine ran at on gasoline. However, with an engine tuned to the use of LPG (ie. via higher compression ratios such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a ...

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Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia II - Gasoline - Energy content

Gasoline - Lead. The mixture known as gasoline when used in high compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to explode early ( pre-ignition pre-detonation) causing a damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging") noise. Early research into this effect was led by A.H. Gibson and Harry Ricardo in England and Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd in the United States. The discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of the practice in the 1920s and hence ...

See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

Read more here: » Gasoline: Encyclopedia II - Gasoline - Additives

One form of DNA damage is alteration of a nucleotide (a mutation), altering the information carried in the DNA sequence. Because DNA mutation and recombination are the main means for evolution to occur, the rate of DNA repair influences the rate of evolution. With a very high level of DNA repair rate, the rate of mutation is reduced, resulting in corresponding reduction in the rate of evolution. Conversely, high mutation rates increase the rate of evolution.

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DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA damage, DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage, DNA repair - Sources of damage, DNA repair - Types of damage, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms, DNA repair - Single strand damage, DNA repair - Double strand breaks, DNA repair - DNA repair in disease and aging, DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology, DNA repair - DNA repair rate is variable, DNA repair - Hereditary DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Chronic DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Longevity genes and DNA repair, DNA repair - Caloric restriction increases DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA repair and evolution, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms are ancient, DNA repair - Disease death and evolution, DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation, DNA repair - Cancer treatment, DNA repair - Gene therapy, DNA repair - Gene repair

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A vast body of evidence correlates DNA damage to death and disease. As indicated by new overexpression studies, increasing the activity of some DNA repair enzymes could decrease the rate of aging and disease. This may result in the development of human interventions that can add many healthy and disease-free years to an aging population. Not all DNA repair enzymes are beneficial when overexpressed, however. Some DNA repair enzymes can introduce new mutations in healthy DNA. Reduced substrate specificity has been implicated in these ...

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DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA damage, DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage, DNA repair - Sources of damage, DNA repair - Types of damage, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms, DNA repair - Single strand damage, DNA repair - Double strand breaks, DNA repair - DNA repair in disease and aging, DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology, DNA repair - DNA repair rate is variable, DNA repair - Hereditary DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Chronic DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Longevity genes and DNA repair, DNA repair - Caloric restriction increases DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA repair and evolution, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms are ancient, DNA repair - Disease death and evolution, DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation, DNA repair - Cancer treatment, DNA repair - Gene therapy, DNA repair - Gene repair

Read more here: » DNA repair: Encyclopedia II - DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation