alkylation

Gold(III) chloride, traditionally called auric chloride, is one of the most common compounds of gold. It has the formula AuCl3. The Roman numerals in the name indicate that the gold has an oxidation state of +3, which is the most stable form for gold in its compounds. Gold also forms another chloride, gold(I) chloride (AuCl) which is less stable than AuCl3. Also chlorauric acid (HAuCl4), the product formed when gold dissolves in aqua regia, is sometimes referred to rather loosely as "gold chloride", "acid g ...

Including:

• GoldIII chloride - Structure
• GoldIII chloride - Chemical properties
• GoldIII chloride - Preparation
• GoldIII chloride - Uses
• GoldIII chloride - Precautions
• GoldIII chloride - Suppliers/Manufacturers

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Benzene, also known as C6H6, PhH, and benzol, is an organic chemical compound which is a colorless and flammable liquid with a pleasant, sweet smell. Benzene is a known carcinogen. It is a component of gasoline. It is an important industrial solvent and precursor in the production of drugs, plastics, gasoline, synthetic rubber, and dyes. Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil, but it is usually synthesized from other compounds present in petroleum. Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon, a ...

Including:

• Benzene - History
• Benzene - Structure
• Benzene - Substituted benzenes
• Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes
• Benzene - Other substituents
• Benzene - Fused aromatic rings
• Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs
• Benzene - Production
• Benzene - Catalytic reforming
• Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation
• Benzene - Steam cracking
• Benzene - Uses
• Benzene - Reactions of benzene
• Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution
• Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation
• Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation
• Benzene - Health effects
• Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Gasoline is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production. Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. These days, material that is simply separated from crude oil via distillation, called natural gasoline, will not meet the required specifications (in particular octane rating; see below) for modern engines, but these streams will form part of the blend. The bulk of a typical gasoline consi ...

Including:

• Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production
• Gasoline - Volatility
• Gasoline - Octane rating
• Gasoline - Dangers
• Gasoline - Energy content
• Gasoline - Additives
• Gasoline - Lead
• Gasoline - MMT
• Gasoline - Oxygenate blending
• Gasoline - History
• Gasoline - Pharmaceutical
• Gasoline - Etymology
• Gasoline - World War II and octane
• Gasoline - Current use
• Gasoline - Stability

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DNA repair is a process constantly operating in cells; it is essential to survival because it protects the genome from damage and harmful mutations. In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors (such as UV rays) can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as 500,000 individual molecular lesions per cell per day. These lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule, and can dramatically alter the cell's way of reading the information encoded in its genes. Consequently, the DNA repair process must be constantly operating, to ...

Including:

• DNA repair - DNA damage
• DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage
• DNA repair - Sources of damage
• DNA repair - Types of damage
• DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms
• DNA repair - Single strand damage
• DNA repair - Double strand breaks
• DNA repair - DNA repair in disease and aging
• DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology
• DNA repair - DNA repair rate is variable
• DNA repair - Hereditary DNA repair disorders
• DNA repair - Chronic DNA repair disorders
• DNA repair - Longevity genes and DNA repair
• DNA repair - Caloric restriction increases DNA repair
• DNA repair - DNA repair and evolution
• DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms are ancient
• DNA repair - Disease death and evolution
• DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation
• DNA repair - Cancer treatment
• DNA repair - Gene therapy
• DNA repair - Gene repair

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In petroleum geology and chemistry, cracking is the process whereby complex organic molecules (e.g. kerogens or heavy hydrocarbons) are converted to simpler molecules (e.g. light hydrocarbons) by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the temperature and presence of any catalysts. Cracking chemistry - Applications. In an oil refinery cracking processes allow the production of "light" products (such as LPG and gasoline) from ...

Including:

• Cracking chemistry - Applications
• Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking
• Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - Chemistry
• Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking
• Cracking chemistry - History

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Methylation - Epigenetics. Methylation contributing to epigenetic inheritance can occur either through DNA methylation or protein methylation. DNA methylation in vertebrates typically occurs at CpG sites (that is, where a cytosine is directly followed by a guanine in the DNA sequence); this methylation results in the conversion of the cytosine to 5-methylcytosine. The formation of Me-CpG is catalyzed by the enzyme DNA methyltransferase. CpG sites are uncommon in vertebrate genomes but are often foun ...

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Methylation, Methylation - Biological methylation, Methylation - Epigenetics, Methylation - Embryonic development, Methylation - Methylation in postnatal development, Methylation - Methylation and cancer, Methylation - Methylation and bacterial host defense, Methylation - Methylation in chemistry

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Raney nickel - Alloy preparation. Alloys are prepared commercially by melting the active metal (nickel in this case, but iron and copper "Raney-type" catalysts can be prepared as well) and aluminium in a crucible and quenching the resultant melt, which is then crushed into a fine powder.[2] This powder may be screened for a specific particle size range depending on the a ...

See also:

Raney nickel, Raney nickel - Preparation, Raney nickel - Alloy preparation, Raney nickel - Activation, Raney nickel - Properties, Raney nickel - Applications, Raney nickel - Safety, Raney nickel - Development

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Cells cannot tolerate DNA damage that compromises the integrity and accessibility of essential information in the genome (but cells remain superficially functional when so-called "non-essential" genes are missing or damaged). Depending on the type of damage inflicted on the DNA's double helical structure, a variety of repair strategies has evolved to restore lost information. As templates for restoration cells use the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or the sister chromosome. Without access to template information, DNA repair is er ...

See also:

DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA damage, DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage, DNA repair - Sources of damage, DNA repair - Types of damage, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms, DNA repair - Single strand damage, DNA repair - Double strand breaks, DNA repair - DNA repair in disease and aging, DNA repair - Poor DNA repair induces pathology, DNA repair - DNA repair rate is variable, DNA repair - Hereditary DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Chronic DNA repair disorders, DNA repair - Longevity genes and DNA repair, DNA repair - Caloric restriction increases DNA repair, DNA repair - DNA repair and evolution, DNA repair - DNA repair mechanisms are ancient, DNA repair - Disease death and evolution, DNA repair - Medicine & DNA repair modulation, DNA repair - Cancer treatment, DNA repair - Gene therapy, DNA repair - Gene repair

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Raw oil or unprocessed ("crude") oil is not very useful in the form it comes in out of the ground. It needs to be broken down into parts and refined before use in a solid material such as plastics and foams, or as petroleum fossil fuels as in the case of automobile and airplane engines. Oil can be used in so many various ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or cy ...

See also:

Oil refinery, Oil refinery - Operation, Oil refinery - Products of oil refinery, Oil refinery - Safety and environmental concerns, Oil refinery - Common process units found in a refinery, Oil refinery - Specialized end product units, Oil refinery - Co-plant siting, Oil refinery - History

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Friedel-Crafts alkylation involves the alkylation of an aromatic ring and an alkyl halide using a strong Lewis acid catalyst. With anhydrous aluminium chloride as a catalyst, the alkyl group attaches at the former site of the chloride ion. This reaction has one big disadvantage, namely that the product is more nucleophilic than the reactant due to the electron donating alkyl-chain. Therefore, another hydrogen is substituted with an alkyl-chain, which leads to overalkyation of the molecule. Also, if the chlorine is not on a tertiary ca ...

See also:

Friedel-Crafts reaction, Friedel-Crafts reaction - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Friedel-Crafts reaction - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Friedel-Crafts reaction - Scope

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The formula of benzene (C6H6) caused a mystery for some time after its discovery, as no explanation had been found that could account for all the bonds — carbon usually forms four single bonds and hydrogen one. The chemist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz was the first to deduce the ring structure of benzene. An often-repeated story claims that after years of studying carbon bonding, benzene and related molecules, he dreamt one night of the Ouroboros, a snake eating its own tail, and that upon waking he ...

See also:

Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

Read more here: » Benzene: Encyclopedia II - Benzene - Structure

Cerium(III) chloride can be used as a starting point for the preparation of other cerium salts, such as the Lewis acid, cerium(III) trifluoromethanesulfonate, used for Friedel-Crafts acylations. It is also used itself as a Lewis acid, for example as a catalyst in Friedel-Crafts alkylation reactions.[10] Luche reduction[11] of alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds has become a popular method in organic synthesis, where CeCl3.6H2O is used in conjunction with sodium borohydri ...

See also:

CeriumIII chloride, CeriumIII chloride - Preparation of anhydrous CeCl₃, CeriumIII chloride - Uses, CeriumIII chloride - Suppliers

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Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. These days, material that is simply separated from crude oil via distillation, called natural gasoline, will not meet the required specifications (in particular octane rating; see below) for modern engines, but these streams will form part of the blend. The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 5 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule. The various refinery streams that are blended together to make gasoline all have different characteristics. Some important streams are ...

See also:

Gasoline, Gasoline - Chemical analysis and production, Gasoline - Volatility, Gasoline - Octane rating, Gasoline - Dangers, Gasoline - Energy content, Gasoline - Additives, Gasoline - Lead, Gasoline - MMT, Gasoline - Oxygenate blending, Gasoline - History, Gasoline - Pharmaceutical, Gasoline - Etymology, Gasoline - World War II and octane, Gasoline - Current use, Gasoline - Stability

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Breathing hydrazines may cause coughing and irritation of the throat and lungs, tremors, or seizures. Breathing hydrazines for long periods may cause liver and kidney damage, as well as serious effects on reproductive organs. Eating or drinking small amounts of hydrazines may cause nausea, vomiting, uncontrolled shaking, inflammation of the nerves, drowsiness, or coma. Hydrazine is found in chewing tobacco and cigarettes. Tumors have been seen in many organs of animals that were exposed to hydrazines by ingestion or breathing, ...

See also:

Hydrazine, Hydrazine - Health effects, Hydrazine - Use, Hydrazine - Molecular structure, Hydrazine - Industrial production, Hydrazine - Hydrazines, Hydrazine - Organic reactions

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Gold(III) chloride is one of the most common gold compounds and it is therefore used as the starting point for the synthesis of many other gold compounds, for example the water-soluble cyanide complex KAu(CN)4: AuCl3 + 4 KCN → KAu(CN)4 + 3 KCl Gold(III) salts, especially NaAuCl4 (made from AuCl3 + NaCl), provide a non-toxic alternative to mercury(II) salts as catalysts for alkyne reactions. One important reaction of this sort is the hydration of terminal alkynes to produce methyl ke ...

See also:

GoldIII chloride, GoldIII chloride - Structure, GoldIII chloride - Chemical properties, GoldIII chloride - Preparation, GoldIII chloride - Uses, GoldIII chloride - Precautions, GoldIII chloride - Suppliers/Manufacturers

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In an oil refinery cracking processes allow the production of "light" products (such as LPG and gasoline) from heavier crude oil distillation fractions (such as gas oils) and residues. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC for short) produces a high yield of gasoline and LPG while hydrocracking is a major source of jet fuel, gasoline components and LPG. Thermal cracking is currently used to "upgrade" very heavy fractions ("upgrading", "visbreaking"), or to produce light fractions or distillates, burner fuel and/or petroleum coke ...

See also:

Cracking chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Applications, Cracking chemistry - Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Hydrocracking, Cracking chemistry - Steam Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Chemistry, Cracking chemistry - Catalytic Cracking, Cracking chemistry - Thermal Cracking, Cracking chemistry - History

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The formula of benzene (C6H6) caused a mystery for some time after its discovery, as no explanation had been found that could account for all the bonds — carbon usually forms four single bonds and hydrogen one. The chemist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz was the first to deduce the ring structure of benzene. An often-repeated story claims that after years of studying carbon bonding, benzene and related molecules, he dreamt one night of the Ouroboros, a snake eating its own tail, and that upon waking he ...

See also:

Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

Read more here: » Benzene: Encyclopedia II - Benzene - Structure

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, benzene was used as an aftershave because of its pleasant smell. Prior to the 1920s, benzene was frequently used as an industrial solvent, especially for degreasing metal. As its toxicity became obvious, other solvents replaced benzene in applications that directly exposed the user to benzene. Benzene was also used to initially decaffeinate coffee by German importer Lugwig Roselius in 1903. This lead to the production of Sanka, -ka for kaffein, but later ...

See also:

Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Benzene may result whenever carbon-rich materials undergo incomplete combustion. It is produced naturally in volcanoes and forest fires, and is also a component of cigarette smoke. Up until World War II, most benzene was produced as a byproduct of coke production in the steel industry. However, in the 1950s, increased demand for benzene, especially from the growing plastics industry, necessitated the production of benzene from petroleum. Today, most benzene comes from the petrochemical industry, with only a sm ...

See also:

Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution. Electrophilic aromatic substitution is a general method of substituting aromatic rings such as benzene. Benzene is nucleophilic enough, so that in the presence of strong electrophiles such as acylium ions or alkyl carbocations, reaction will occur to ultimately give substituted benzenes. Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation. The Friedel-Crafts acylation is a specific example of electrophilic aromatic substitution. The reaction is the acylation of an aromatic ring (such as benzene) with an a ...

See also:

Benzene, Benzene - History, Benzene - Structure, Benzene - Substituted benzenes, Benzene - Alkyl substituents alkylbenzenes, Benzene - Other substituents, Benzene - Fused aromatic rings, Benzene - Heterocyclic analogs, Benzene - Production, Benzene - Catalytic reforming, Benzene - Toluene hydrodealkylation, Benzene - Steam cracking, Benzene - Uses, Benzene - Reactions of benzene, Benzene - Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts acylation, Benzene - Friedel-Crafts alkylation, Benzene - Health effects, Benzene - Benzene exposure

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