alkyl

Electrophiles may attack aromatic rings with functional groups. Performing an electrophilic substitution on an already substituted benzene compound raises the problem of regioselectivity. In case of a monosubstituted benzene, there are 4 different reactive positions .For a monosubstituted benzene, the ring carbon atom bearing the substituent is position 1 or ipso, the next ring atom is position 2 or ortho, ...

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Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Basic reactions, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Other reactions, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Basic reaction mechanism, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Substituted aromatic rings, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Ortho/para directors, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Meta directors, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Five membered heterocyclic compounds

Read more here: » Electrophilic aromatic substitution: Encyclopedia II - Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Substituted aromatic rings

Substituted compounds are chemical compounds where one or more hydrogen atoms of a core structure have been replaced with a functional group like alkyl, hydroxy, or halogen. Substitution chemistry - Example. Benzene is a simple aromatic ring. Subsituted benzenes are a heterogeneous group of chemicals with a wide spectrum of uses and properties: benzene C6H6 toluene C6H5-CH3 xylene C6H4(-CH3See also:

Substitution chemistry, Substitution chemistry - Substituted compounds, Substitution chemistry - Example, Substitution chemistry - Substitution reaction

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Ether - Synthesis. R-OH + R-OH → R-O-R + H2O This direct reaction requires drastic conditions (heat and an acid catalyst) and is usually not applicable. Such conditions can destroy the delicate structures of some functional groups. There exist several milder methods to produce ethers. R-O- + R-X → R-O-R + X- This is called Williamson ether synthesis. It involves treatment of a parent alcohol with a strong base to form the alkoxide a ...

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Ether, Ether - Similar structures, Ether - Primary secondary and tertiary ethers, Ether - Polyethers, Ether - Chemical reactions, Ether - Synthesis, Ether - Reactions, Ether - Physical properties, Ether - Nomenclature, Ether - Important ethers

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Halogenation of Stilbene Simple hydrocarbons are relatively unreactive. In order to form more complex molecules, it is generally necessary to introduce more reactive functional groups. Alkenes (olefins) containing the carbon-carbon double bond may be halogenated to form alkyl halides, which are more capable of undergoing further chemical reactions. An example of halogenation is the bromination of (E)-stilbene. Bromine is somewhat of a special case due in no small part, to it's relatively enormous size ...

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Stilbene, Stilbene - Uses of Stilbene, Stilbene - Stilbene Reactions, Stilbene - More Information, Stilbene - Spectra

Read more here: » Stilbene: Encyclopedia II - Stilbene - Stilbene Reactions

Esters can be produced by an equilibrium reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. The ester is named according to the alkyl group (the part from the alcohol) and then the alkanoate (the part from the carboxylic acid) which make it up.[1] For example, the reaction between methanol and butyric acid yields the ester methyl butyrate C3H7-COO-CH3 (as well as water). The simplest ester is H-COO-CH3 (methy ...

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Ester, Ester - Naming of esters, Ester - Physical properties, Ester - Ester synthesis, Ester - Ester reactions

Read more here: » Ester: Encyclopedia II - Ester - Naming of esters

Biodiesel is a clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to petrodiesel, the industry term for diesel produced from petroleum. It can be used as an additive in formulations of diesel to increase the lubricity of pure ultra-low sulfur petrodiesel (ULSD) fuel. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix, in contrast to the "BA" system used for bioalcohol mixes. For example, 20% biodiesel is labeled B20. Pure biodiesel, 100%, is referred to as B100. ...

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Biodiesel, Biodiesel - History, Biodiesel - Fuel quality, standards and properties, Biodiesel - Production, Biodiesel - Base oils, Biodiesel - Efficiency and economic arguments, Biodiesel - Availability, Biodiesel - Australia, Biodiesel - Brazil, Biodiesel - Belgium, Biodiesel - Canada, Biodiesel - Germany, Biodiesel - India, Biodiesel - United States

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Carboxylic acids are widespread in nature. Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids that partially dissociate into H+ cations and RCOO- anions in aqueous solution. The carboxylate anion R-COO- is usually named with the suffix -ate, so acetic acid, for example, becomes acetate ion. Only about 0.02% of all acetic acid molecules are dissociated at room temperature in solution. The two electronegative oxygen atoms tend to pull the electron away from the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group, and the remai ...

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Carboxylic acid, Carboxylic acid - Acidity, electron distribution and resonance, Carboxylic acid - Synthesis, Carboxylic acid - Reactions, Carboxylic acid - Examples

Read more here: » Carboxylic acid: Encyclopedia II - Carboxylic acid - Acidity, electron distribution and resonance

Some individuals continue to make soap in the home. The traditional name "soaper", for a soapmaker, is still used by those who make soap as a hobby. Those who make their own soaps are also known as soapcrafters. The most popular soapmaking processes today is the cold process method, where fats such as olive oil react with lye. Novice soapmakers sometimes use the melt and pour process, where a premade soap base is melted and poured in individual molds. Some soapers also practice other processes, such as the historical hot process, and mak ...

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Soap, Soap - Purification and finishing, Soap - Use, Soap - The history and process of soap making, Soap - Handmade soap, Soap - Disadvantages

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Stilbene is used in manufacture of dyes and optical brighteners, and also as a phosphor and a scintillator. Stilbene is one of the gain mediums used in dye lasers. Many stilbene derivates (stilbenoids) are present naturally in plants. An example is resveratrol. ...

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Stilbene, Stilbene - Uses of Stilbene, Stilbene - Stilbene Reactions, Stilbene - More Information, Stilbene - Spectra

Read more here: » Stilbene: Encyclopedia II - Stilbene - Uses of Stilbene

Today, fat-based soaps have mostly been superseded by modern detergents. Washing agents do not contain soap for cleaning fabric, but to reduce foaming. The disadvantages of commercial soaps are: Soap deprives the skin of natural, beneficial oils. Some antibacterial soaps have chemicals which actually kill some skin cells. Soap-based products often contain the additive sodium laureth sulfate. Soap can react mildly basically with fabrics resulting in damage over the long term. This is usually due ...

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Soap, Soap - Purification and finishing, Soap - Use, Soap - The history and process of soap making, Soap - Handmade soap, Soap - Disadvantages

Read more here: » Soap: Encyclopedia II - Soap - Disadvantages

Some solutes such as noble gases and osmium tetoxide can be extracted from one phase to another without the need for a chemical reaction. This is the most simple type of solvent extraction. Some solutes which do not at first sight appear to undergo a reaction during the extraction process do not have distribution ratio which is independent of concentration, a classic example is the extraction of carboxylic acids (HA) into non polar media such as benzene here it is oftein the case that the carboxylic acid will form a dimer in the organic layer so the distribution ratio ...

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Liquid-liquid extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Distribution ratio, Liquid-liquid extraction - One big batch of solvent or several smaller batchs ?, Liquid-liquid extraction - Separation factors, Liquid-liquid extraction - Decontamination factor, Liquid-liquid extraction - Slopes of graphs, Liquid-liquid extraction - Batchwise single stage extractions, Liquid-liquid extraction - Multistage countercurrent continuous processes, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction with chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Solvation mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion exchange mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion pair extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Kinetics of extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Aqueous complexing agents, Liquid-liquid extraction - Industrial process design, Liquid-liquid extraction - Equipment, Liquid-liquid extraction - Terms

Read more here: » Liquid-liquid extraction: Encyclopedia II - Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change

Some solutes such as noble gases can be extracted from one phase to another without the need for a chemical reaction (See Absorption (chemistry)). This is the most simple type of solvent extraction. Some solutes which do not at first sight appear to undergo a reaction during the extraction process do not have distribution ratio which is independent of concentration, a classic example is the extraction of carboxylic acids (HA) into non polar media such as benzene here it is oftein the case that the carboxylic acid will form a dimer in the organic layer so the distribution ratio ...

See also:

Liquid-liquid extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Distribution ratio, Liquid-liquid extraction - One big batch of solvent or several smaller batchs ?, Liquid-liquid extraction - Separation factors, Liquid-liquid extraction - Decontamination factor, Liquid-liquid extraction - Slopes of graphs, Liquid-liquid extraction - Batchwise single stage extractions, Liquid-liquid extraction - Multistage countercurrent continuous processes, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction with chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Solvation mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion exchange mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion pair extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Kinetics of extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Aqueous complexing agents, Liquid-liquid extraction - Industrial process design, Liquid-liquid extraction - Equipment, Liquid-liquid extraction - Terms

Read more here: » Liquid-liquid extraction: Encyclopedia II - Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change

Diesel fuel is very similar to heating oil which is used in central heating. In Europe, the United States and Canada, taxes on diesel fuel are higher than on heating oil due to the fuel tax, and in those areas, heating oil is marked with fuel dyes and trace chemicals to prevent and detect tax fraud. Similarly, "untaxed" diesel is available in the United States, which is available for use primarily in agricultural applications such as for tractor fuel. This untaxed diesel is also dyed red for identification purposes, and should a person be fo ...

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Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Uses

Biodiesel can be obtained from vegetable oil and animal fats (bio-lipids, using transesterification). Biodiesel is a non-fossil fuel alternative to petrodiesel. It can also be mixed with petrodiesel in any amount in modern engines, though when first using it , the solvent properties of the fuel tend to clear out all the garbage that has built up from the petrodiesel and can clog fuel filters. Biodiesel has a lower gel point than regular diesel, but is comparable to diesel #2. This can be overcome by using a biodiesel/petrodiesel blend, or by ...

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Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Biodiesel

The oxidation of a Grignard reagent with oxygen takes place through a radical intermediate to a magnesium hydroperoxide. Hydrolysis of this complex yields hydroperoxides and reduction with an additional equivalent of Grignard reagent gives an alcohol. The synthetic utility of Grignard oxidations can be increased by a reaction of Grignards with oxygen in presence of an alkene to an ethylene extended alcohol [3]. This modification requires aryl or viny ...

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Grignard reagent, Grignard reagent - Grignard reagent formation, Grignard reagent - Nucleophilic addition reactions, Grignard reagent - Coupling reactions, Grignard reagent - Oxidation

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Bad quality (high sulfur) diesel fuel has been used as a palladium extraction agent for the liquid-liquid extraction of this metal from nitric acid mixtures. This has been proposed as a means of separating the fission product palladium from PUREX raffinate which comes from used nuclear fuel. In this solvent extraction system the hydrocarbons of the diesel act as the diluent while the dialkyl sulfides act as the extractant. This extraction operates by a solvation mechanism. So far neither a pilot plant or full scale plant has been constructed to recover palladium, rhodium or ruthenium from nuclear waste ...

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Diesel, Diesel - Petroleum diesel, Diesel - Chemical composition, Diesel - Synthetic diesel, Diesel - Biodiesel, Diesel - Uses, Diesel - Other uses, Diesel - Notes

Read more here: » Diesel: Encyclopedia II - Diesel - Other uses

These are commly used in industry for the processing of metals such as the lanthanides, because the separation factors between the lanthanides are so small many extraction stages are needed. In the multistage processes the aqueous raffinate from one extraction unit is feed as the next unit as the aqueous feed. While the organic phase is moved in the opposite direction. Hence in this way even if the separation between two ...

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Liquid-liquid extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Distribution ratio, Liquid-liquid extraction - One big batch of solvent or several smaller batchs ?, Liquid-liquid extraction - Separation factors, Liquid-liquid extraction - Decontamination factor, Liquid-liquid extraction - Slopes of graphs, Liquid-liquid extraction - Batchwise single stage extractions, Liquid-liquid extraction - Multistage countercurrent continuous processes, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction with chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Solvation mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion exchange mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion pair extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Kinetics of extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Aqueous complexing agents, Liquid-liquid extraction - Industrial process design, Liquid-liquid extraction - Equipment, Liquid-liquid extraction - Terms

Read more here: » Liquid-liquid extraction: Encyclopedia II - Liquid-liquid extraction - Multistage countercurrent continuous processes

In the first step of the reaction mechanism for this reaction, the electrophile A attacks the electron-rich aromatic ring which in the simplest case is benzene. This leads to the formation of a positively-charged cyclohexadienyl cation, also known as an arenium ion. This carbocation is unstable, owing both to the positive charge on the molecule and to the temporary loss of aromaticity. However, the cyclohexadienyl cation is partially stabilized by resona ...

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Electrophilic aromatic substitution, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Basic reactions, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Other reactions, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Basic reaction mechanism, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Substituted aromatic rings, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Ortho/para directors, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Meta directors, Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Five membered heterocyclic compounds

Read more here: » Electrophilic aromatic substitution: Encyclopedia II - Electrophilic aromatic substitution - Basic reaction mechanism

The carboxylate anion R-COO– is usually named with the suffix -ate, so acetic acid, for example, becomes acetate ion. In IUPAC nomenclature, carboxylic acids have an -oic acid suffix (e.g. octadecanoic acid). In common nomenclature, the suffix is usually -ic (e.g. stearic acid). Some representative carboxylic acids include: Formic acid – HCOOH, found in insect stings (formic refers to ants) Acrylic acid - CH2=CHCOOH, used in polymer synthesis Lactic a ...

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Carboxylic acid, Carboxylic acid - Acidity electron distribution and resonance, Carboxylic acid - Synthesis, Carboxylic acid - Reactions, Carboxylic acid - Nomenclature and examples

Read more here: » Carboxylic acid: Encyclopedia II - Carboxylic acid - Nomenclature and examples

Aldehydes (R-CHO) take the suffix "-al". Since they are always at the end of an alkane chain, they do not need a position number: HCHO (formaldehyde) is methanal, CH3CHO (acetaldehyde) is ethanal. If other functional groups are present, the chain is numbered such that the aldehyde carbon is in the "1" position. If a prefix form is required, "oxo-" is used (as for ketones), with the position number indicating the end of a chain: CHOCH3COOH is 3-oxopropanoic acid. If the carbon in the carbonyl group cannot be inclu ...

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IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Alkanes, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Alkenes and Alkynes, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Alcohols, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Halogenated compounds, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Ketones, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Aldehydes, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Carboxylic acids, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Ethers, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Esters, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Amines and Amides, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Cyclic compounds, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Order of precedence of groups, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Common nomenclature, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Ketones, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Aldehydes, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Ions, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Hydron, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Parent hydride cations, IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Cations and substitution

Read more here: » IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry: Encyclopedia II - IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Aldehydes

Typically an industrial process will use an extraction step in which solutes are transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase, this is often followed by a scrubbing stage in which unwanted solutes are removed from the organic phase, then a stripping stage in which the wanted solutes are removed from the organic phase. The organic phase may then be treated to make it ready for use again. After use the organic phase may be subjected to a cleaning step to remove any degradation products, for instance in PUREX plants the used o ...

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Liquid-liquid extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Distribution ratio, Liquid-liquid extraction - One big batch of solvent or several smaller batchs ?, Liquid-liquid extraction - Separation factors, Liquid-liquid extraction - Decontamination factor, Liquid-liquid extraction - Slopes of graphs, Liquid-liquid extraction - Batchwise single stage extractions, Liquid-liquid extraction - Multistage countercurrent continuous processes, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction with chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Solvation mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion exchange mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion pair extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Kinetics of extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Aqueous complexing agents, Liquid-liquid extraction - Industrial process design, Liquid-liquid extraction - Equipment, Liquid-liquid extraction - Terms

Read more here: » Liquid-liquid extraction: Encyclopedia II - Liquid-liquid extraction - Industrial process design

If a complexing agent is present in the aqueous phase then it can lower the distribution ratio. For instance in the case of iodine being distributed between water and an inert organic solvent such as carbon tetrachloride then the presence of iodide in the aqueous phase can alter the extraction chemistry. Insteed of DI2 being a constant it becomes DI2 = k [I2.Organic]/[I2.Aqueous][I-.Aqueous] This is because the iodine reacts with the iodide to form I3-. The I3-< ...

See also:

Liquid-liquid extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Distribution ratio, Liquid-liquid extraction - One big batch of solvent or several smaller batchs ?, Liquid-liquid extraction - Separation factors, Liquid-liquid extraction - Decontamination factor, Liquid-liquid extraction - Slopes of graphs, Liquid-liquid extraction - Batchwise single stage extractions, Liquid-liquid extraction - Multistage countercurrent continuous processes, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction without chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Extraction with chemical change, Liquid-liquid extraction - Solvation mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion exchange mechanism, Liquid-liquid extraction - Ion pair extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Kinetics of extraction, Liquid-liquid extraction - Aqueous complexing agents, Liquid-liquid extraction - Industrial process design, Liquid-liquid extraction - Equipment, Liquid-liquid extraction - Terms

Read more here: » Liquid-liquid extraction: Encyclopedia II - Liquid-liquid extraction - Aqueous complexing agents