Affirmative action - History

Affirmative action (U.S. English), or positive discrimination (British English), is a policy or a program promoting the representation in various systems of people of a group who have traditionally been discriminated against, with the aim of creating a more egalitarian society. This typically focuses on education, employment, health care, or social welfare. In employment, affirmative action may also be known as employment equity or preferential hiring. In this context affirmative action requires that institutions increa ...

Including:

• Affirmative action - Purpose
• Affirmative action - History
• Affirmative action - American history
• Affirmative action - Other approaches
• Affirmative action - Consultations
• Affirmative action - United States
• Affirmative action - Basis in law
• Affirmative action - Implementation in universities
• Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases
• Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states
• Affirmative action - Other countries
• Affirmative action - Results
• Affirmative action - Criticism
• Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism
• Affirmative action - Quotas
• Affirmative action - Cultural differences
• Affirmative action - Biological Differences
• Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities
• Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell
• Affirmative action - Counter-arguments
• Affirmative action - Libertarian view
• Affirmative action - Organizations
• Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia - Affirmative action

The terms "affirmative action" and "positive discrimination" originate in law, where it is common for lawyers to speak of "affirmative" or "positive" remedies that command the wrongdoer to do something. In contrast, "negative" remedies command the wrongdoer to not do something or to stop doing something. Affirmative action - American history. The initial successes of the American Civil Rights Movement brought about negative remedies that attempted to prevent majority ethnic or racial groups f ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Centrist view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - History

The terms "affirmative action" and "positive discrimination" originate in law, where it is common for lawyers to speak of "affirmative" or "positive" remedies that command the wrongdoer to do something. In contrast, "negative" remedies command the wrongdoer to not do something or to stop doing something. Affirmative action - American history. The initial successes of the civil rights movement brought about negative remedies that attempted to prevent majority ethnic or racial groups from discr ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - History

In the U.S., affirmative action only applies at transition points—times when individuals are changing their employment or enrollment. Thus, any potential advantage or disadvantage is predominantly conferred upon working age adults who hope to improve their lot through a change in employment or the pursuit of educational opportunity. This arrangement has the greatest impact on young people, while maintaining the status and position of established members of society. This overall framework was established by Presidential Decree in March 1961 ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - United States

Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism. Opponents of affirmative action regard it as government sanctioned racial discrimination, and also believe that it’s demeaning to members of minority groups, that affirmative action wrongly sends a condescending message to minorities that they are not capable enough to be considered on their own merits. Affirmative action - Quotas. Critics often object to the use of racial quotas and gender quotas in affirmative action. Quotas are ill ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Centrist view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Criticism

In some countries which have laws on racial equality, affirmative action is rendered illegal by a requirement to treat all races equally. This approach of equal treatment is sometimes described as being "race-blind". It tends to act against both discrimination and reverse discrimination. In such countries, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join the police force. This is sometimes described as "positive action", as opposed to "positive discrimination". See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Centrist view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Other approaches

UCLA professor Richard H. Sander published an article in the November 2004 issue of the Stanford Law Review that questioned the effectiveness of affirmative action in law schools. The article presents a study that, among other things, shows that half of all black law students rank near the bottom of their class after the first year of law school, and that black law students are more likely to drop out of law school and to fail the bar exam. The article offers a tentative estimate that the production of new black lawyers in the United States ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Centrist view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Results

In the U.S., affirmative action only applies at transition points—times when individuals are changing their employment or enrollment. Thus, any potential advantage or disadvantage is predominantly conferred upon working age adults who hope to improve their lot through a change in employment or the pursuit of educational opportunity. This arrangement has the greatest impact on young people, while maintaining the status and position of established members of society. This overall framework was established by Presidential Decree in March 1961 ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Centrist view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - United States

Affirmative action began as corrective for past governmental and social injustices against demographic groups that have been subjected to prejudice. Such groups are characterized most commonly by race, sex or gender, or ethnicity. Affirmative action seeks to increase the representation of these demographic groups in schools, in work place, and in society in general. A certain group or gender may be less proportionately represented in an area, often employment or education, due predominantly, in the view of proponents, to past or ongoi ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Purpose

In some countries which have laws on racial equality, affirmative action is rendered illegal by a requirement to treat all races equally. This approach of equal treatment is sometimes described as being "race-blind". It tends to act against both discrimination and reverse discrimination. In such countries, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join the police force. This is sometimes described as "positive action", as opposed to "positive discrimination". See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Other approaches

UCLA professor Richard H. Sander published an article in the November 2004 issue of the Stanford Law Review that questioned the effectiveness of affirmative action in law schools. The article presents a study that, among other things, shows that half of all black law students rank near the bottom of their class after the first year of law school, and that black law students are more likely to drop out of law school and to fail the bar exam. The article offers a tentative estimate that the production of new black lawyers in the United States ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Results

Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism. Opponents of affirmative action regard it as government sanctioned racial discrimination, and also believe that it’s demeaning to members of minority groups, that affirmative action wrongly sends a condescending message to minorities that they are not capable enough to be considered on their own merits. Affirmative action - Quotas. Critics often object to the use of racial quotas and gender quotas in affirmative action. Quotas are ill ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Criticism

Affirmative action began as corrective for past governmental and social injustices against demographic groups that have been subjected to prejudice. Such groups are characterized most commonly by race, sex or gender, or ethnicity. Affirmative action seeks to increase the representation of these demographic groups in schools, in work place, and in society in general. A certain group or gender may be less proportionately represented in an area, often employment or education, due predominantly, in the view of proponents, to past or ongoi ...

See also:

Affirmative action, Affirmative action - Purpose, Affirmative action - History, Affirmative action - American history, Affirmative action - Other approaches, Affirmative action - Consultations, Affirmative action - United States, Affirmative action - Basis in law, Affirmative action - Implementation in universities, Affirmative action - Important Supreme Court cases, Affirmative action - In individual U.S. states, Affirmative action - Other countries, Affirmative action - Results, Affirmative action - Criticism, Affirmative action - Demeaning racialism, Affirmative action - Quotas, Affirmative action - Cultural differences, Affirmative action - Biological Differences, Affirmative action - Disadvantaging working-class non-minorities, Affirmative action - Criticism by Thomas Sowell, Affirmative action - Counter-arguments, Affirmative action - Libertarian view, Affirmative action - Centrist view, Affirmative action - Organizations, Affirmative action - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Affirmative action: Encyclopedia II - Affirmative action - Purpose