Orthodox Brahmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of final emancipation (mukti, moksha) dependent on perfect knowledge of the divine essence, Brahman. This knowledge can only be obtained by complete detachment of the mind from external objects and intense meditation on the divine, which again presupposes the total extinction of all sensual instincts by means of austere practices (tapas). The chosen few who succeed in gaining complete mastery over their senses and a full knowledge of the divine nature become absorbed into the universal ...

See also:

Brahmanism, Brahmanism - Theology, Brahmanism - Pantheism, Brahmanism - Caste, Brahmanism - Sub castes, Brahmanism - Maharashtrian sub-castes:, Brahmanism - South Indian brahmin sub-castes:, Brahmanism - The four stages of life, Brahmanism - Sacramental rites, Brahmanism - Vegetarianism, Brahmanism - Moksha, Brahmanism - Evolution of Brahminism, Brahmanism - Brahmin Supremacy, Brahmanism - Trimurti, Brahmanism - Challenge To Brahmin Supremacy and Caste System, Brahmanism - Buddhism, Brahmanism - Charvaka, Brahmanism - B.R. Ambedkar, Brahmanism - Famous Brahmins

Read more here: » Brahmanism: Encyclopedia II - Brahmanism - Moksha

In the earliest Vedic Sanskrit: The word stem (neuter gender) is Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as /brəh mən/) and its nominative singular form is Brahma (ब्रह्म, pronounced as /brəh mə/). It means "growth", "development", "swelling"; and then "holy", "pious utterance", "worship", perhaps via the idea of saying during prayers and ceremonies that God or the deities are great. Later it came to mean the Supreme Cosmic Spirit. If the word stem is still Brahma ...

See also:

Brahman, Brahman - Etymology, Brahman - Semantics and pronunciation, Brahman - Brahman and Atman, Brahman - Enlightenment and Brahman, Brahman - Advaita concept, Brahman - Dvaita Vaishnava concept, Brahman - External links, Brahman - Notes

Read more here: » Brahman: Encyclopedia II - Brahman - Semantics and pronunciation

Brahmanism - Buddhism. Such a man arose in the person of a prince of Kapilavastu, Siddhārtha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism (about the 6th century BC). Had it only been for the philosophical tenets of Buddha, they need scarcely have caused, and probably did not cause, any great uneasiness to the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one step beyond Kapila, by altogether denying the existence of the soul as a substance, and admitting only ...

See also:

Brahmanism, Brahmanism - Theology, Brahmanism - Pantheism, Brahmanism - Caste, Brahmanism - Sub castes, Brahmanism - Maharashtrian sub-castes:, Brahmanism - South Indian brahmin sub-castes:, Brahmanism - The four stages of life, Brahmanism - Sacramental rites, Brahmanism - Vegetarianism, Brahmanism - Moksha, Brahmanism - Evolution of Brahminism, Brahmanism - Brahmin Supremacy, Brahmanism - Trimurti, Brahmanism - Challenge To Brahmin Supremacy and Caste System, Brahmanism - Buddhism, Brahmanism - Charvaka, Brahmanism - B.R. Ambedkar, Brahmanism - Famous Brahmins

Read more here: » Brahmanism: Encyclopedia II - Brahmanism - Challenge To Brahmin Supremacy and Caste System

Vedanta: (Sanskrit) "Ultimate wisdom" or "final

conclusions of the Vedas." Vedanta is the system of

thought embodied in the Upanishads (ca 1500-600 bce),

which give forth the ultimate conclusions of the Vedas.

Through history there developed numerous Vedanta

schools, ranging from pure dualism to absolute monism.

The first and original school is Advaita Ishvaravada,

"monistic theism" or panentheism, exemplified in the

Vedanta-Siddhanta of Rishi Tirumular (ca 250 bce) of the Nandinatha Sampradaya in his Tirumantiram, which is a

perfect summation of both the Vedas and the Agamas.

This is a dipolar reconciliation of monism and dualism

which, as philosopher-statesman Dr. S. Radhakrishnan

(18881975)

declared, best depicts the philosophy of the

Upanishads. After about 700 ce, many other schools

developed, each establishing itself through written

commentaries on the major Upanishads, the Bhagavad

Gita and the Brahma Sutras. The latter text, by

Badarayana (ca 400 bce), is the earliest known

systematization of Vedanta, but its extremely terse

aphorisms are philosophically illusive without

commentary. During the "scholastic era" (7001700),

three main variations of the original Vedanta were

developed: 1) Advaita Vedanta, or pure nondualism,

exemplified by Shankara (788820);

2) Vishishtadvaita

Vedanta, or qualified nondualism, most fully expressed by

Ramanuja (10171137);

and 3) Dvaita Vedanta,

expounded by Madhva (11971278).

Panentheism is embodied in those qualified nondual

Vedanta schools that accept the ultimate identity of

the soul and God. Examples are the Vishishtadvaita

of Bhaskara (ca 950), the Shuddha Advaita, "pure

nondualism," of Vallabha (ca 14751530)

and, to a

lesser degree, the Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja.

In summary: Madhva, the dualist, conceives

Brahman to be the Personal God. In his philosophy,

the universe, souls and God are all separate from one

another and real. Ramanuja, the qualified nondualist,

also conceives Brahman to be the Personal God. In

his philosophy, God must not be considered apart

from the world and souls, for the three together form

a one whole. The world and souls are real as the

body of God, and the individual soul feels himself to

be part of God. Shankara, the strict advaitist,

conceives Brahman to be the Impersonal God, the

Absolute. Shankara does not deny the existence of

the Personal God, known as Ishvara, but declares

Ishvara to be equally as unreal as the universe and

the individuality of the soul. In truth, the only

Reality is the Absolute, and man is that Absolute. To

Rishi Tirumular, the panentheist, there is an eternal

oneness of God and man at the level of their inner Being, but a difference is acknowledged during the

evolution of the soul. Ultimately even this difference

merges in identity. Thus, there is perfectly

beginningless oneness and a temporary difference

which resolves itself in perfect identity.

Vedanta is one of the six classical philosophies (shad

darshanas) along with Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya,

Yoga and Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called Uttara

Mimamsa, "upper or later examination," as

distinguished from Purva Mimamsa, which

concerned itself solely with the earlier portions of the

Veda. Other important schools of Vedanta include

the Dvaitadvaita, "dual-nondualism,"of Nimbarka (ca

1150), and the Achintya Bhedabheda, "unthinkable

difference-nondifference," of Chaitanya (14851534).

See: acosmic pantheism, Advaita Isvaravada,

dvaita-advaita, monistic theism, Madhva,

panentheism, Ramanuja, Tirumantiram, Vallabha.

(See also: Vedanta, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Shankara:

Shankara ("He who is benevolent"): the eighth-century adept who was the greatest proponent of nondualism (Advaita Vedanta) and whose philosophical school was probably responsible for the decline of Buddhism in India

(See also: Shankara, Yoga, Yoga Dictionary)

Vedanta (Sanskrit) The end or completion of the Veda; the final, most perfect exposition of the Vedic tenets. As Uttara-mimansa, one of the six Darsanas or Hindu schools of philosophy, it is said to have been founded by the compiler of the Vedas, Vyasa. Sankaracharya is the main popularizer of the Advaita or nondualistic Vedantic philosophy, which is virtually identical with Central Asian Buddhism.

"The Vedanta is the highest form that the Brahmanical teachings have taken . . .

"The Vedanta may briefly be described as a system of mystical philosophy derived from the efforts of Sages through many generations to interpret the sacred or esoteric meaning of the Upanishads. . . . The Hindus call the Vedanta Brahma-jnana" (OG 181).

(See also: Vedanta, Mysticism, Mysticism Dictionary, Body mind and Soul)

Katha Upanishad or Kathopanishad (Sanskrit) One of the Upanishads of the Yajur-Veda, named after the sage Katha; commented upon by Sankaracharya, founder of the Advaita-Vedanta school.

(See also: Katha Upanishad, Kathopanishad, Mysticism, Mysticism Dictionary, Occultism, Occultism Dictionary)

As the language of the Early Aryans has undergone continual processes of modification, dialectic division, and amalgamation with other native languages so has their religious belief passed through various stages of development broadly distinguished from one another by certain prominent features. The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear idea can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings, looked upon by later generations in the light of sacred writ, under the colle ...

See also:

Brahmanism, Brahmanism - Theology, Brahmanism - Pantheism, Brahmanism - Caste, Brahmanism - Sub castes, Brahmanism - Maharashtrian sub-castes:, Brahmanism - South Indian brahmin sub-castes:, Brahmanism - The four stages of life, Brahmanism - Sacramental rites, Brahmanism - Vegetarianism, Brahmanism - Moksha, Brahmanism - Evolution of Brahminism, Brahmanism - Brahmin Supremacy, Brahmanism - Trimurti, Brahmanism - Challenge To Brahmin Supremacy and Caste System, Brahmanism - Buddhism, Brahmanism - Charvaka, Brahmanism - B.R. Ambedkar, Brahmanism - Famous Brahmins

Read more here: » Brahmanism: Encyclopedia II - Brahmanism - Evolution of Brahminism

A considerable portion of the literature of Vedic times has apparently been lost; and several important works, the original composition of which has probably to be assigned to the early days of Brahmanism, such as the institutes of Manu and the two great epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, in the form in which they have been handed down to us, show manifest traces of a more modern reduction. Yet it is sufficiently clear from internal evidence that the Manus Code of Laws, though merely a metrical recast of older materials, reproduces on the whole pretty faithfully the state of Brahminic society dep ...

See also:

Brahmanism, Brahmanism - Theology, Brahmanism - Pantheism, Brahmanism - Caste, Brahmanism - Sub castes, Brahmanism - Maharashtrian sub-castes:, Brahmanism - South Indian brahmin sub-castes:, Brahmanism - The four stages of life, Brahmanism - Sacramental rites, Brahmanism - Vegetarianism, Brahmanism - Moksha, Brahmanism - Evolution of Brahminism, Brahmanism - Brahmin Supremacy, Brahmanism - Trimurti, Brahmanism - Challenge To Brahmin Supremacy and Caste System, Brahmanism - Buddhism, Brahmanism - Charvaka, Brahmanism - B.R. Ambedkar, Brahmanism - Famous Brahmins

Read more here: » Brahmanism: Encyclopedia II - Brahmanism - Brahmin Supremacy

Shankara: (788-820AD)

Founder of the best-known and most influential school of Vedanta, known as the non-dualist or advaita Vedanta.

He taught that the teachings of the Upanishads was a self-consistent whole, that the ultimate reality id Brahma or the Self, which is pure reality, pure consciousness, and pure bliss, and that the world has come into being from Brahman and is wholy dependent on it. The criteria of reality is immutibility and permanence. The world is called illusion, or maya.

(See also: Shankara, New Age Spirituality, Body Mind and Soul)

Shankara: (Sanskrit) One of Hinduism's most extraordinary monks (788-820) and preeminent guru of the Smarta Sampradaya. Noted for his monistic philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, his many scriptural commentaries, and formalizing ten orders of sannyasins with pontifical headquarters at strategic points across India. He lived only 32 years, but traveled throughout India and transformed the Hindu world in that time.

See: Dashanami, Shankaracharya pitha, shanmata sthapanacharya, Smarta Sampradaya, Vedanta.

(See also: Shankara, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Vallabhacharya: (Sanskrit) "Beloved." V

aishnava saint (ca 1475-1530) whose panentheistic Shuddha Advaita (pure nondualism) philosophy became the essential teaching of the nonascetic Vaishnava sect that bears his name. He composed 17 works, most importantly commentaries on the Vedanta and Mimamsa Sutras and the Bhagavata Purana. The stories of his 84 disciples are often repeated on festive occasions by followers. The sect is strongest in Gujarat.

See: Vedanta.

(See also: Vallabhacharya, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Vishishtadvaita: (Sanskrit) "Qualified nondualism."

Best known as the term used by Ramanuja (ca 1017-1137) to name his Vaishnava Vedanta philosophy, which is nondualistic in that the ultimate truth or reality is one, not two, and souls are in fact part of God. And it is "qualified" in that souls are fully one with God, but not identical. Thus there is a full union which is somewhat shy of total merger. Siva Vishishtadvaita was the term chosen by Bhaskara (ca 950) to name his philosophy.

See: Siva Advaita, Vedanta.

(See also: Vishishtadvaita, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Vallabhacharya: (Sanskrit) "Beloved." V

aishnava saint

(ca 1475-1530) whose panentheistic Shuddha Advaita

(pure nondualism) philosophy became the essential

teaching of the nonascetic Vaishnava sect that bears his

name. He composed 17 works, most importantly

commentaries on the Vedanta and Mimamsa Sutras and

the Bhagavata Purana. The stories of his 84 disciples are

often repeated on festive occasions by followers. The sect

is strongest in Gujarat.

See: Vedanta.

(See also: Vallabhacharya, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Vishishtadvaita: (Sanskrit) "Qualified nondualism." Best

known as the term used by Ramanuja (ca 1017-1137) to

name his Vaishnava Vedanta philosophy, which is

nondualistic in that the ultimate truth or reality is one, not

two, and souls are in fact part of God. And it is

"qualified" in that souls are fully one with God, but not

identical. Thus there is a full union which is somewhat

shy of total merger. Siva Vishishtadvaita was the term

chosen by Bhaskara (ca 950) to name his philosophy.

See:

Siva Advaita, Vedanta.

(See also: Vishishtadvaita, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Monism - Hinduism. Hinduism is monistic, as far back as the Rig Veda, in which hymnists speak of one being-non-being that 'breathed without breath,' and which singular force self-projected into the cosmic existence. Nevertheless, the first system in Hinduism that clearly, unequivocably explicated Absolute monism was that of Advaita (or nondualist) Vedanta (see Advaita Vedanta) as expounded by Adi Shankaracharya. It is part of the six Hindu systems of philosophy, based on the Upanishads, and posits that the ultima ...

See also:

Monism, Monism - Theological growth and breadth, Monism - Philosophical monism, Monism - Monism Pantheism and Panentheism, Monism - Monism in religion, Monism - Hinduism, Monism - Christianity, Monism - Judaism, Monism - Ayyavazhi, Monism - Others, Monism - Ancient philosophers

Read more here: » Monism: Encyclopedia II - Monism - Monism in religion

Vedanta: (Sanskrit) "Ultimate wisdom" or "final conclusions of the Vedas."

Vedanta is the system of thought embodied in the Upanishads (ca 1500-600 bce), which give forth the ultimate conclusions of the Vedas. Through history there developed numerous Vedanta schools, ranging from pure dualism to absolute monism.

The first and original school is Advaita Ishvaravada, "monistic theism" or panentheism, exemplified in the Vedanta-Siddhanta of Rishi Tirumular (ca 250 bce) of the Nandinatha Sampradaya in his Tirumantiram, which is a perfect summation of both the Vedas and the Agamas. This is a dipolar reconciliation of monism and dualism which, as philosopher-statesman Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (18881975) declared, best depicts the philosophy of the Upanishads.

After about 700 ce, many other schools developed, each establishing itself through written commentaries on the major Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras. The latter text, by Badarayana (ca 400 bce), is the earliest known systematization of Vedanta, but its extremely terse aphorisms are philosophically illusive without commentary.

During the "scholastic era" (700-1700), three main variations of the original Vedanta were developed:

7)    Advaita Vedanta, or pure nondualism, exemplified by Shankara (788-820);

8)    Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, or qualified nondualism, most fully expressed by Ramanuja (1017-1137); and

9)    Dvaita Vedanta, expounded by Madhva (1197-1278).

Panentheism is embodied in those qualified nondual Vedanta schools that accept the ultimate identity of the soul and God. Examples are the Vishishtadvaita of Bhaskara (ca 950), the Shuddha Advaita, "pure nondualism," of Vallabha (ca 1475-1530) and, to a lesser degree, the Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja.

In summary: Madhva, the dualist, conceives Brahman to be the Personal God. In his philosophy, the universe, souls and God are all separate from one another and real. Ramanuja, the qualified nondualist, also conceives Brahman to be the Personal God. In his philosophy, God must not be considered apart from the world and souls, for the three together form a one whole. The world and souls are real as the body of God, and the individual soul feels himself to be part of God. Shankara, the strict advaitist, conceives Brahman to be the Impersonal God, the Absolute. Shankara does not deny the existence of the Personal God, known as Ishvara, but declares Ishvara to be equally as unreal as the universe and the individuality of the soul. In truth, the only Reality is the Absolute, and man is that Absolute. To Rishi Tirumular, the panentheist, there is an eternal oneness of God and man at the level of their inner Being, but a difference is acknowledged during the evolution of the soul. Ultimately even this difference merges in identity. Thus, there is perfectly beginningless oneness and a temporary difference which resolves itself in perfect identity.

Vedanta is one of the six classical philosophies (shad darshanas) along with Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga and Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called Uttara Mimamsa, "upper or later examination," as distinguished from Purva Mimamsa, which concerned itself solely with the earlier portions of the Veda. Other important schools of Vedanta include the Dvaitadvaita, "dual-nondualism,"of Nimbarka (ca 1150), and the Achintya Bhedabheda, "unthinkable difference-nondifference," of Chaitanya (14851534).

See: acosmic pantheism, Advaita Isvaravada, dvaita-advaita, monistic theism, Madhva, panentheism, Ramanuja, Tirumantiram, Vallabha.

(See also: Vedanta, Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

Sayana or Sayanacharya Sayanacarya (Sanskrit) The celebrated commentator on the Rig-Veda, who flourished under Vira-bukka I of Vijaya-nagara (1350-79). Some of his works were written in conjunction with his brother Madhava, who was the prime minister of Vira-bukka, also known as Madhavacharya, a celebrated teacher and scholar.

Madhavacharya brought into clearer focus the Dvaita-Vedanta (dualistic Vedanta), according to which Brahma and the human soul, although intimately connected, are distinct. This teaching is in direct contradistinction with that of Sankaracharya, the greatest historic exponent of the Advaita-Vedanta (nondualistic Vedanta), according to the teaching of which, spirit and matter, Brahman-atman (divinity) and the human spirit, are one in essence.

(See also: Sayana, Sayanacharya, Sayanacarya, Mysticism, Mysticism Dictionary)

While the exact cause of the decline of Buddhism in India is disputed, it is known that the mingling of Hindu and Buddhist societies in India and the rise of Hindu Vedanta movements began to compete against Buddhism. Many believe that Hinduism's adaptation to Buddhism resulted in Buddhism's rapid decline. Particularly important were Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita Vedanta and the Bhakti movement, both of which showed the influence of Buddhist thought. Some scholars believe that the influence of Bhakti was synergistic with aggressive Muslim actions, in that Bh ...

See also:

Decline of Buddhism in India, Decline of Buddhism in India - Integration with life in India, Decline of Buddhism in India - Political and military developments, Decline of Buddhism in India - Assimilation conversion and destruction, Decline of Buddhism in India - Survival of Buddhism in India, Decline of Buddhism in India - Revival

Read more here: » Decline of Buddhism in India: Encyclopedia II - Decline of Buddhism in India - Assimilation conversion and destruction

There are believed to be four yogas (unions) or margs (paths) for the attainment of Moksha. They are the ways of selfless work, of self-dissolving love, of absolute discernment, and of 'royal' meditative immersion. Different schools of Hinduism place varying emphasis on one path or other, some of the most famous being the tantric and yogic practices developed in Hinduism. Today, the two major schools of thought are Advaita Vedanta and Bhakti branches. Bhakti sees the Self as God, most often a personified monotheistic conception ...

See also:

Moksha, Moksha - Means to achieve Moksha

Read more here: » Moksha: Encyclopedia II - Moksha - Means to achieve Moksha

Sankara (-acharya)

The most influential teacher of the impersonal Advaita philosophy in Kali-yuga. According to the Padma Purana, he is an incarnation of Lord Siva sent to earth by Krishna to bewilder the atheistic with distortions of the teachings of Vedanta.

(See also: Sankara, Bhakti, Bhakti Yoga, Bhakti Dictionary, Body Mind and Soul)

Madhvacharya

The founding acharya of one of the four Vaishnava sampradayas in Kali-yuga. He appeared in the thirteenth century as a Karnataka brahmana, taught a strictly theistic version of Vedanta philosophy, vigorously opposed the Advaita-vada of Sankaracharya, and established the worship of Sri Krishna at Udupi.

(See also: Madhvacharya, Bhakti, Bhakti Yoga, Bhakti Dictionary, Body Mind and Soul)