Washington Administration: Encyclopedia - Washington Administration

Washington Administration

George Washington was elected as President of the United States twice, serving eight years from 1789 to 1797 before retiring to his Mount Vernon plantation.

Washington Administration - 1789 election

The 1789 presidential election took place on February 15, 1789. The two main candidates were George Washington and John Adams. It was left up to each state to determine how to choose its electors for the Electoral College. Of the 13 states, only ten cast electoral votes, and of these only five held a general election for president.

Each of the 69 electors who carried out their duties cast two votes, one of which had to be for a candidate from outside the voter's state. Washington, who garnered 69 electoral votes, was a unanimous choice, and remains the only person ever to be elected president unanimously (a feat which he duplicated in 1792). As runner-up with 34 votes, John Adams became Vice President-elect. Congress certified the results of the election on April 6, and though it was originally planned for March 4, Washington took the oath of office on April 30 on the portico outside the U.S. Senate chamber at Federal Hall in New York City.

Washington Administration - Establishing protocol

Washington's election was a disappointment to Martha Washington, the First Lady, who wanted to continue living in quiet retirement at Mount Vernon after the war. Nevertheless, she quickly assumed the role of hostess, opening her parlor and organizing weekly dinner parties for as many dignitaries as could fit around the presidential table. The puzzle was how to balance the ornate protocols and titles typical of European courts with the plain simplicity demanded of a republican state. The compromise was to minimize formality and to call the president, "your excellency."

Since the Constitution was vague about the structure of the executive branch, Congress created the first three departments and the order has ever since been the order of priority: Foreign Affairs (July) (later renamed to State), War (August), and Treasury (September). Congress also set up the offices of Attorney General and Postmaster General, without departments. Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson to Foreign Affairs, Henry Knox to War, Alexander Hamilton to Treasury, and Edmund Randolph Attorney General. At first, he met privately with each man, but by late 1791 he was convening formal Cabinet meetings of the four. They were marked by a growing tension between Hamilton, who had an elaborate program, and Jefferson, who usually opposed. But Hamilton usually had Washington's support and he won the intense battles over a National Bank, federal assumption of the States' Revolutonary War debts, and a tariff. Jefferson won the location of the new capital (in what became Washington D.C.)

Hamilton had formed a network of "friends of the administration" in Congress and in each of the states; it soon emerged as the Federalist Party. Jefferson and James Madison built a counter-network called the Republican Party. (Historians usually call it the "Democratic-Republican" party to avoid confusion with the major party of 1854 to present.) These were the first political parties in the United States, or the world. They both set up newspapers and local clubs to support their programs and villify their opponents, and to help elect their candidates.

Washington Administration - Address to Jews of Newport Rhode Island

By the time of the American Revolutionary War, there were at least 25 Jewish families living in Newport, Rhode Island, making it the largest Jewish community in the colonies. [1] However, Newport had suffered greatly during the Revolutionary War. [2]

On August 17, 1790, Moses Sexias, warden of the Hebrew Congregation of Newport, wrote a letter to George Washington welcoming him on his visit to the city. The next day, Washington sent a response. This response has long been regarded as Washington's most prominent pronouncement on religious toleration, and helped to establish the United States precedent of a religiously neutral government.

Washington Administration - Whiskey Rebellion

In 1791, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, part of Hamilton's program. The Revenue Act of 1789 already dealt with federal debt, but the decision to pay off state debts as well meant that additional taxes were required.

This tax was highly unpopular on the American frontier, especially with settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. It affected farmers who grew grain that was made into whiskey. Notably, the farmers whom the tax adversely affected were Democratic-Republicans and supporters of Jefferson, and Hamilton promoted taxing them instead of merchants, which made up his base of support.

Large producers were assessed a tax of six cents per gallon. However, smaller producers, many of whom were Scots-Irish and lived in more remote western areas, were taxed at the higher rate of nine cents a gallon. In addition, farmers lacked any practical means to get their grain to market other than fermenting and distilling it into relatively portable distilled spirits. From Pennsylvania to Georgia, the western counties engaged in a campaign of harassment of the federal tax collectors. "Whiskey Boys" made violent protests in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

Washington and Hamilton, remembeing Shays' Rebellion just eight years before, decided to make Pennsylvania a testing ground for federal authority. Washington ordered federal marshals to serve court orders requiring the protesters to appear in U.S. district court.

By the summer of 1794, the protests became a rebellion; one group disguised as women assaulted a collector, tarred and feathered him, cropped his hair, and stole his horse. They also engaged in mail theft and disruption of court proceedings. In July 1794, in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, a federal marshal was attacked by a mob and a regional inspector's house was burned. On August 1, about 7000 rebels convened to discuss a possible assault on Pittsburgh but decided aganist it when learning of the town's heavy fortifications.

On August 7, Washington invoked the Militia Law of 1792 to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several states. The rebel force they sought was likewise composed of Pennsylvanians, Virginians, and possibly men from other states. In October and November, Washington (with Henry Lee) personally led a force of 13,000 to western Pennsylvania to suppress the unrest, which was centered around the Monongahela Valley area.

The rebels hid in the woods and the army found no organized resistance. Twenty barefoot civilians were captured and paraded down Market Street in Philadelphia. The men were imprisoned, where one died, while two were convicted of treason and sentenced to be hanged. Washington however, issued a presidential pardon to them on the grounds that one was a "simpleton" and the other "insane." In leading the military force aganist the rebels Washington became the only president to personally lead troops in battle while commander-in-chief. It also marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government had used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens.

Washington Administration - War on the frontier

The United States had acquired title to the Northwest Territory from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, but the American Indians who lived there were not consulted. Initially the United States proceeded as if the Indians had lost their land in the war by siding with the British. This proved unrealistic, since the U.S. government had neither the troops nor the money to enforce the policy. Instead, Washington's administration, under the direction of Secretary of War Henry Knox, shifted to a policy of acquiring the land only through purchase in treaties. This also proved difficult to enforce, since U.S. settlers and states wanted to acquire land of their own at a faster rate, and Native American leaders who signed treaties rarely spoke on behalf of all natives who used the land. Violence often resulted, the largest conflict being the Northwest Indian War, in which the Indians won victories until being defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794.

Washington Administration - Foreign Affairs

In 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, who attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the war against Great Britain. Genêt was authorized to issue letters of marque and reprisal to American ships and gave authority to any French consul to serve as a prize court. Genêt's activities forced Washington to ask the French government for his recall.

Washington Administration - Jay's Treaty of 1794

The Jay Treaty, named after Chief Justice of the United States John Jay who was sent by Washington to London to negotiate an agreement, was a treaty between the United States and Great Britain signed on November 19, 1794 that attempted to clear up some of the lingering problems of American separation from Great Britain following the American Revolutionary War.

The Treaty was strongly attacked by supporters of France, led by the Jeffersonians, but Washington, supported by Alexander Hamilton, obtained its ratification by Congress. The British had to clear out of their forts around the Great Lakes. It remained in effect until the War of 1812.

Washington Administration - Party Formation

Alexander Hamilton used Federal patronage to set up a national network of friends of the Administration. This developed into a full-fledged party, with Hamilton the key leader. The Federalist party elected John Adams president in 1796.

Washington Administration - Farewell Address and Two-Term Tradition

Washington's Farewell Address was the defining statement of Federalist party principles and one of the most influential statements of American political values. Hamilton made major suggestions for Washington's draft, as did John Jay. It was not a speech but a public letter issues in September, 1796, in time to influence the presidential election. Most of the Address dealt with the dangers of bitter partisanship in domestic politics. True republicans, Washington argued, are in fact in true harmony, and should transcend local, state and regional interests. Above all domestic politics should be isolated from foreign affairs. Washington counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, and warned sternly against involvement in European wars. Long-term alliances should be avoided, but he said the 1778 alliance with France had to be observed.

By refusing a third term Washington established a firm, but unwritten rule of a maximum of two terms for a U.S. president. It was broken by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940, but after his death was formally integrated into the Federal Constitution by the 22nd Amendement.

Washington Administration - Scholarly Secondary Sources

• Bemis, Samuel Flagg. Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy (1923).
• Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton (2004).
• Deconde, Alexander. Entangling Alliance: Politics & Diplomacy under George Washington (1958)
• Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. Powerful interpretation of Washington's career.
• Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism. (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
• Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. ISBN 0316286168 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's four-volume biography.
• Freeman, Douglas. S. Washington: An abridgement in one volume by Richard Harwell of the seven-volume George Washington by Douglas Southall Freeman (1968), the standard scholarly biography.
• Kaufman, Burton I. ed., Washington's Farewell Address: The View from the 20th Century (1969)
• [Lodge, Henry Cabot]. George Washington (vol 2, 1899 covers 1783-99) online at Project Gutenberg old but generally accurate.
• McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of George Washington. (1988), mostly history of ideas
• Nettels, Curtis P. The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775-1815 (1962). The standard economic history.
• Sharp, James. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. (1995) standard survey
• White, Leonard D. The Federalists (1949), the best coverage of how the departments were created and operated.
• Wilentz, Sean. Major Problems in the Early Republic, 1787-1848: Documents and Essays (1992), good collection of primary documents and secondary scholarly essays.
• Varg, Paul A. Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers (1963)

Washington Administration - Primary Sources

• Birth of the Nation, 1789-1791 original documents

Washington Administration - Cabinet

Washington Administration - Supreme Court appointments

As the first President, Washington appointed the entire Supreme Court, a feat almost repeated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during his four terms in office (1933-1945). Washington appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• John Jay - Chief Justice - 1789
• James Wilson - 1789
• John Rutledge - 1790
• William Cushing - 1790
• John Blair - 1790
• James Iredell - 1790
• Thomas Johnson - 1792
• William Paterson - 1793
• John Rutledge - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice since 1790)
• Samuel Chase - 1796
• Oliver Ellsworth - Chief Justice - 1796

Washington Administration - Major Presidential Acts

• Signed Judiciary Act of 1789
• Signed Indian Intercourse Acts, starting in 1790
• Signed Residence Act of 1790
• Signed Bank Act of 1791
• Signed Coinage Act of 1792
• Signed Fugitive Slave Act of 1793
• Signed Naval Act of 1794

Washington Administration - States admitted to the Union

• North Carolina (1789)
• Rhode Island (1790)
• Vermont (1791)
• Kentucky (1792)
• Tennessee (1796)

Washington Administration - First President?

Some have wondered why national leaders of the United States prior to the adoption of the U.S. Constitution are not recognized as the President of the United States. The answer is that it was a nominal job without any executive power or legislative power.

Some people argue that the Presidents of the Continental Congress under the Articles of Confederation should be retroactively recognized as the true first Presidents of the United States. Politically, the two positions are different in that one was simply a chairman of a Congress that controlled a loose confederation while the other is an active executive official who heads a true federal government. Given this, historians generally believe that the positions should not be considered the same and therefore, the first "true" U.S. President (in the sense of being America's full Head of State) is indeed Washington. [3] However, Washington himself, in correspondence, congratulated John Hanson on becoming the first President of the Continental Congress (1781-1782), using the phrase "President of the United States" in referring to Hanson.

Category: George Washington

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Washington Administration", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki