Ottoman wars in Europe: Encyclopedia II - Ottoman wars in Europe - History

Ottoman wars in Europe - History

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1300s-1456: Ottoman Expansion into Europe

After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (see Suleyman Pasha) which provided it a basis for operations in Europe, The Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Its first significant opponent was the young Serbian Empire, which was worn down by a series of campaigns, notably in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, in which the leaders of both armies were killed, and which gained a central role in Serbian folklore as an epic battle and beginning of bad luck for Serbia. The Ottoman Empire proceeded to conquer the lands of Bulgaria - the Southern half (Thracia) in 1371, Sofia in 1382, the then capital Trnava in 1393, the Northern rest after the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396; Albania in 1385 and again in 1480, Greece in 1460; Serbia by 1459 and (after partial Hungarian reconquest in 1480) again by 1499; Bosnia in 1463 (the Northwestern part only by 1527) and Herzegovina in 1482.

The defeat in 1456 at the Siege of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) held up Ottoman expansion into Catholic Europe for 70 years, though for one year (1480-1481) the Italian port of Otranto was taken, and in 1493 the Ottoman army successfully raided Croatia and Styria.

The Ottomans faced a fierce resistance by Albanian highlanders who gathered around their leader,Skanderbeg, (Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg) the offspring of a feudal nobleman, and managed to fend off Ottoman attacks for more more than 30 years. The Albanian struggle was one of the only two remaining bastions of anti-Ottoman resistance in Eastern Europe after the Battle of Kossovo in 1389. It has been argued that their resiliency halted their advance of the Eastern flank of the Western Civilization, thereby saving the Italian peninsula from Ottoman conquest. In fact, Sultan Mehmet II died in 1481, merely two years after the collapse of the Albanian resistance and one year after he launched the Italian campaign.

The Kingdom of Hungary, which at the time spanned the area from Croatia in the west to Transylvania in the east, was also gravely impacted by Ottoman conquest. The origins of such a deterioration can be traced back to the fall of the Arpad ruling dynasty and their subsequent replacement with the Angevin and Jagiellonian kings. After a series of inconclusive wars over the course of 150 years, the kingdom finally crumbled in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, after which most of it was either occupied or brought under Ottoman suzerainty. (The 150-year Turkish Occupation, as it is called in Hungary, lasted until the 1686 re-taking of Buda - however, parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were occupied from 1421 and until 1718.)

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1423-1503: Wars with Venice

The Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns, as early as 1423, when it waged a seven year war with the Venetian Republic over maritime control of the Aegean Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The wars with Venice continued after the fall of Constantinople in 1463-1479, and after Cyprus fell to Venice in 1499-1503.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1462-1476: European Successes

In 1462, the Ottomans were driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula, a longtime enemy of the Turks. Though the Ottomans outnumbered his lone army by three to one, they suffered over forty thousand casualties at the hands of Dracula's guerrilla tactics before he was imprisoned by Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus over a political dispute. This caused outrage among many influencial Hungarian figures and Western admirers of Vlad's success in battle against the Ottoman Empire (and his early recognition of the threat it posed), including high-ranking members of the Vatican. Because of this, Matthias had him granted the status of distinguished prisoner. Eventually, Dracula was freed in late 1475 and sent with an army of Hungarian and Serbian soldiers to recover Bosnia from the Ottomans. In 1476 he recovered Wallachia from Turkish control as well, only to be killed in battle that same year. It is not known exactly how many Turks Dracula's armies and their allies in battle killed throughout the span of his career, but it is estimated at as high as one hundred thousand.

In 1475, the Ottomans, under Mehmed II, suffered their worst-ever defeat to that day, at the Battle of Vaslui, in Moldavia, by Stefan cel Mare. More than forty-five thousand Ottoman troops, including four pashas, have been reported as part of the Ottoman casualties.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1526-1566: Attack on Habsburg Empire

After Mohács, only the southwestern part of the Hungarian Kingdom was actually conquered, but the Ottoman campaign continued with small campaigns and major summer invasions (troops returned south of the Balkan Mountains before winter) through the land between 1526 and 1556. In 1529, they mounted their first major attack of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy (with up to 300,000 in earlier accounts, 100,000 according to newer research), trying to conquer the city of Vienna (Siege of Vienna). In 1532, another attack on Vienna with 60,000 troops in the main army was held up by the small fort (800 defenders) of Kőszeg in western Hungary, fighting a suicidal battle, holding up invasion troops until winter was too close - and until the Habsburg Empire assembled a force of 80,000 at Vienna. The Ottoman troops returned home through Styria, laying waste to the country.

In the meantime, in 1538, the Ottoman Empire invaded Moldavia. In 1541, another campaign in Hungary took Buda and Pest (which today, joined, is the Hungarian capital Budapest) with a largely bloodless trick: after concluding peace talks with an agreement, troops stormed the open gates of Buda in the night. In retaliation for a failed Austrian counter-attack in 1542, the conquest of the western half of central Hungary was finished in the 1543 campaign that took both the most important royal ex-capital (Székesfehérvár) and the ex-seat of the cardinal (Esztergom) - but the army of 35-40,000 men was not enough for Suleiman to take on Vienna again. In 1547, a temporary truce was signed between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires, which the Habsburg side soon disregarded.

In the major but moderately successful campaign of 1552, two armies took the eastern part of central Hungary, pushing the borders of the Ottoman Empire to the second (inner) line of northern végvárs (border castles) which Hungary originally built as defense against an expected second Mongol invasion — hence, afterwards, borders on this front changed little. For Hungarians, the 1552 campaign was a series of tragic losses and some heroic (but pyrrhic) victories, which entered folklore - most notably the fall of Drégely (a small fort defended to the last man by just 146 men), and the failed siege of Eger. The latter was a major végvár with more than 2000 men, but in poor shape and without outside help, under which the two Ottoman armies met (150,000 by earlier accounts, 60-75,000 men according to newer research), but couldn't win the siege in five weeks. (However, the fort was taken in 1596.) Finally, the 1556 campaign secured Ottoman influence over Transylvania (which fell under Habsburg control for a time), while failing to gain any ground on the western font, being tied down in the second (after 1555) unsuccessful siege of the southwestern Hungarian border castle of Szigetvár.

The Ottoman Empire conducted another major war against the Habsburgs and their Hungarian territories between 1566 and 1568. The 1566 Battle of Szigetvar, the third siege in which the fort was finally taken but the Sultan died, deterred that year's push for Vienna.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1522-1573: Rhodes and Venice

Invasion of Rhodes in 1522, the Knights of Rhodes banished to Malta, which was in turn besieged in 1565. The Ottomans failed to conquer it though and were repulsed. War with Venice 1570-1573 - defeat in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), but occupation of Cyprus from 1570. A Holy League of Venice, the Papal States, Spain and initially Portugal opposed the Ottoman Empire during this period.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1593-1669: Austria and Venice

15-Year War with Austria (1593-1606) ends with status quo. War with Venice 1645-1669.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1657-1683 Conclusion of Wars with Hapsburgs

In 1657, Transylvania, the Eastern part of the former Hungarian Kingdom that after 1526 gained semi-independence while paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire, felt strong enough to attack the Tatars (then the Empire's vassals) to the East, and later the Ottoman Empire that came to the Tatar's defense - but in a war lasting until 1662, it was beaten, and its Western part (Partium) was annexed to the areas under direct Ottoman control (greatest territorial extent of Ottoman rule in the former Hungarian Kingdom). At the same time, there was another campaign against Austria 1663-1664. However, the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Saint Gotthard on August 1, 1664, by Raimondo Montecuccoli so that they had to enter the Peace of Vasvár with Austria, which held until 1683.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1672-1676: Poland

A year after Poland beats back a Tatar invasion, war with Poland 1672-1676, Jan Sobieski distinguishes himself and becomes the King of Poland.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1683-1699: Great Turkish war -- Reconquest of Hungary

The Great Turkish war started in 1683, with a grand invasion (200,000 troops) towards Vienna, supported by Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. To stop the invasion, a coalition, another Holy League was formed, composed of Austria and Poland (notably in the Battle of Vienna), Venetians and the Russian Empire. After winning the Battle of Vienna, the Holy League gained upper hand, and conducted the reconquest of Hungary (Buda and Pest, the former under the command of a Swiss-born convert to Islam, was retaken in 1686 - followed by a mass slaughter reminiscent of the Crusaders' taking of Jerusalem). This war ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Prince Eugene first distinguished himself in 1683 and remained the most important Austrian commander until 1718.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1700s

Second war with the Russians 1710-1711 near Prut marches. Russians were severely beaten but not annihilated.

Another war with Austria and Venice started in 1714, Austria conquers the remaining areas of the former Hungarian Kingdom, ended with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.

Another war with Russia started in 1735, Austrians joined in 1737, the war ended in 1739 with the Treaty of Belgrade (with Austria) and the Treaty of Nissa (with Russia).

The fourth Russo-Turkish war started in 1768, ends in 1774 with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji.

Yet another war with Russia and Austria started in 1787, ended by Austria with the 1791 Treaty of Sistova, and with the 1792 Treaty of Jassy with Russia.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 1800s

The sixth Russo-Turkish war began in 1806, ended in 1812 due to Napoleon's invasion of Russia.

First Serbian Uprising in 1804, Second Serbian Uprising in 1815, fully liberated by 1877.

Moldavian-Wallachian (Romanian) Uprising 1821-1824. Greek War of Independence 1821-1832, in which Great Powers intervene from 1827, including Russia (Seventh Russo-Turkish war, 1828-1829) achieves autonomy for Greece, Treaty of Adrianople ends the war.

Wars with Bosnia 1831-1836, 1836-1837, 1841.

War with Montenegro 1852-1853.

Eighth Russo-Turkish war 1853-1856, Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France joined the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Ended with the Treaty of Paris (1856).

Second war with Montenegro 1858-1859.

War with Montenegro, Bosnia and Serbia 1862.

Crete Uprising 1866.

Bulgarian Rebellion in 1876.

The ninth and final Russo-Turkish war started in 1877, the same year the Ottomans withdrew from the Conference of Constantinople. Romania declares independence and war on Turkey, joined by Serbians and Bulgarians and finally the Russians (see also Russian Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War). Bosnia was occupied by Austria in 1878. The Russians and the Ottomans sign the Treaty of San Stefano in early 1878. After deliberations at the Congress of Berlin which was attended by all the Great Powers of the time, the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 recognized several territorial changes.

Eastern Rumelia was granted some autonomy in 1878, rebelled in 1885 and joined Bulgaria in 1886. Thessalia ceded to Greece in 1881, but after Greece attacks the Ottoman Empire to help the Second Crete Uprising in 1897, Greece is defeated in Thessalia.

Ottoman wars in Europe - 20th Century

Macedonian insurrection from 1903.

Two Balkan Wars, in 1912 and 1913, involved further action against Ottoman Empire in Europe. The Balkan League first conquered Macedonia and most of Thrace from the Ottoman Empire, and then fell out over the division of the spoils.

The Ottoman Empire suffered a defeat in World War I and all of Rumelia fell by 1918. Only a small part of European territory near the Bosporus, the Eastern Thrace, remained part of Turkey.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "History", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki