Ottoman Empire: Encyclopedia II - Ottoman Empire - History

Ottoman Empire - History

The history of Ottoman Empire spans more than 7 centuries. Older classifications of this history were based on military gains and losses. Current approaches uses wider perspectives; such as having a period of dissolution which the system could not sustain itself, or include economic perspectives on seperation of stagnation and decline.

Ottoman Empire - Origins

The Ottoman Empire originated as a Uç Beyliği (cf. Marquisate, Marches) within the Seljukid State of Anatolia in the late 13th century; which, by then, was a puppet and vassal of Ilkhanate, itself. Traditionally, in 1299, Osman I declared independence for the Beylik.

Ottoman Empire - Rise 1299–1453

With the rise of the empire, the characteristics and nature of the state were defined and the Ottomans definitively carved out their own preserve in history under the rule of Mehmed II.

In this period, the processes and discussions among the elites of Ottomans (the nucleus of Turks around Osman) on how to organize a new state constitudes the most imporatant detail. It is important to recognize the location of this movement, as it had access to many different cultures and experiences. Given the historical facts of other great empires, Ottoman elites thought that it was not merely, the power of the sword that build up and maintained the strongest national power. Ottomans thought that swords must be wielded by man. It was important to find strong and capable men found and bound together in willing cooperation to conquer large sections of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It was also important to organize and govern their conquests in a fairly satisfactory fashion, and to establish a structure which will take great efforts to dismantle. Ottoman nucleus gave precedence on political ideas that constituted the life of the empire, which will be their ruling instution. With these ideas only it was possible to create an attraction of a great body of a nation that gathered by men from every direction and many races to unite a common effort. The ideas and culture that shaped during this period, took three hundred years of decay, disaster, and disintegration, to be destroyed. It can be arguable that it might have injustice, violence and destructive forces involved in developing the structure of one of the great and on the whole a durable and useful empire. But without recognition of the history that goes back to eight centuries, which Turks began to drift southwestward from declining Saracen Empire, and the contexts that they have to live through out this time, it would be an injustice to assign a value for their social innovations (the empire itself). (see ref:The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent by Albert Howe Lybyer)

Even though the Ottoman state existed before Osman I, he is regarded as the founder of the Empire, having given it its name and being the first bey to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of the empire towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from infighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital was moved to Bursa. He published the first coin under his name, demonstrating the trust he built. For the coming centuries his time was recalled with the words "May he be as good as Osman".

Mehmed II was only 12 years old when he became sultan, and was reputed to have been an erudite warrior. His military prowess was demonstrated with his conquest of Constantinople (see the Fall of Constantinople). Mehmed also enjoyed the full support of the empire. He used this to reorganize the state structure and military.

Ottoman Empire - Growth 1453–1683

The growth of Ottoman power can be grouped into two main, characteristic periods. The first period is one of stable conquest and growth; from the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, to the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, in 1566. This was a period of amazing achievements for the Ottoman Empire. The second half shows the characteristics of a big and stable state with main changes in the social life.

Following the acquisition of Constantinople, the Ottomans ended Serbian power at the Battle of Kosovo, which paved the way for expansion into Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) expanded the Empire's eastern frontiers, defeating Safavid Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran and establishing a navy in the Red Sea. His successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, would increase the Empire's size and power even further. After capturing Belgrade, Suleiman struck a major blow on Hungary at the Battle of Mohacs (1526), with which the kingdom fell into anarchy. Then he moved right up to Vienna, but failed to take the city because the lateness of the season forced him to retreat before the onset of winter. Soon Transylvania, Walachia, Moldavia, and Vienna became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire.

In the east, Suleiman the Magnificient would take Baghdad in 1535 from the Persians, giving the Ottomans control of the Middle East. The Ottomans reached their "Golden Age" during Suleiman the Magnificent's reign.

The Siege of Vienna was not intended to be the part of an Ottoman extension into Germany. The Turks wanted to react to interventions of Austrian Habsburg interference into Hungary. But this turned some of the Ottoman allies against it. The Pope abandoned his secular interests, to agitate for a general Crusade against the Ottoman Empire. With the coming decades, the Ottoman Empire was not just an occupying force; it became an instrument in European politics. The Battle of Vienna brought a long period of stagnation, as it was a turning point in the 300-year struggle between the forces of the Central European kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire. The end of these 230 years of growth marked with the end of extension into Europe.

The changes in the social structure during this period is covered under the Economy of the Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman Empire - Stagnation 1683–1827

There was a long succession of sultans, who were capable, but not as capable as the generation of Mehmed II, Selim I, and Suleiman I. During the stagnation, the Ottomans were weakened by wars, especially against Persia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. The Ottoman Empire demonstrated notable resilience among these setbacks for long time.

After the defeat of Kara Mustafa by Jan III Sobieski of Poland at the Battle of Vienna, in 1683, the Ottoman Empire lost some of its standing in Europe. After their defeat in the Great Turkish War in 1699,for the first time in its history the Ottomans acknowledged with the Treaty of Karlowitz that the Austrian empire could sign a treaty with the Ottomans on equal terms, and actually lost a large territory which had been in Ottoman possession for two centuries. Wars and territories were lost, to Austria and Russia in the Balkans and the Caucasus. Areas of the empire such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent from the Ottoman empire in all but name only, and came closer to dependence to France and Britain.

The Russian expansionism was a series of ten wars, fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. During the Crimean War, the Empire entered into alliance with Britain and France to defeat Russia.

The Ottoman defeat of the Russians in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the Treaty of Passarowitz produced a short, peaceful era between 1718–1730. During this stime, the change in Ottoman policies toward Europe given its signals. The Empire began to improve the cities along the Balkans, that would become their defense against the expansionist movements of the Europeans. More public policies were sought, such as drops in the taxation rates; public relations improvements, such as the institution of consulates, and the first civilian industrial investments all fall into this period. It was called the "Tulip Era" as the motif of Tulip was extensively used. However, the scientific advantage the Ottomans had over the European countries decreased. While the Ottomans were stagnating in a stalemate with their European and Asian neighboring countries, the European development speed up. The Ottoman Empire could not keep up technologically with its European rivals, France, Britain, Austria, and Russia.

During this time, beginning with Selim III, there were efforts to modernize the system. Many of the reforms the sultans tried to impose to revitalise the Empire, were reverted by conservative forces within the Empire, either by the religious cadre, or by the now-corrupt Janissaries, even after the Janissaries were disbanded in 1826.

Ottoman Empire - Decline 1828–1908

The declining period of the Empire was shaped by reorganization and transformations in every aspect of the Empire. The caricature on the right is from the period and showed the sentiments of the Ottomans. It was a parody of clerks in the legal bureau of the Ottoman foreign office. Yussuf Bey (the duck) was the employee, the parrot, monkey, and pig (British, Italians, Germans) that nag him were the chief custodians and interpreters (European powers). The Russians were in the background as bears.

The Tanzimat was a period of reform, that lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this time, a fairly modern conscripted army was formed. The banking system was reformed. The guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the Empire had trouble re-paying the loans to European banks. Militarily, it had trouble defending itself from foreign occupation (e.g. Egypt was occupied by the French in 1798; Cyprus was occupied by the British in 1876, etc.). A significant change of this period was this: the Empire stopped going into conflicts alone, and started entering into alliances with European countries. There was a series of alliances with countries such as France, Holland, Britain and Russia. A prime example of this was the Crimean War, in which the British, French, Ottomans and others united against Tsarist Russia.

Of all the ideas that Ottomans acquired from west; the ethnic nationalism, or named at that time as religion of the modern world was the most influential ideology. Ottomans were not just dealing with ethnic nationalism within their boundaries, but across boundaries. Uprisings under Ottoman territory had many effects on other groups during the 19th century. It was claimed that these uprisings determined the path that Ottomans had to take during the 20th century. The rhetoric regarding the cause of 19th century uprisings was sharply divided. The decline period had many achievements, such as organization of the economy, military, communication, etc, but whether the Ottoman state was strong and influential on a scope that would have any effect on the ethnic uprisings was another question. Ottomans claimed that the source of the inter-ethnic conflicts should be sought within their dynamics and the sources that were supporting the conflicts with hidden goals, more than the policies of the state.

Young Turks was a group of Ottomans who were educated in western universities and believed that constitutional monarchy could create an ease to the social unrest in the Empire. Mesrutiyet Era explains the political and social dynamics of the first constitution written by İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti and its social and economical consequences. Through a military coup, İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti had forced Sultan Abdülaziz to leave his position to Murad V. However, Murad V turned out mentally ill and had to be deposed in a few months. Heir apparent Prince Abdülhamid had been invited to assume power under the promise that he would declare constitutional monarchy, which he did at 23 November 1876. Constitution was called Kanun-i Esasi (Basic Law in Turkish).

Ottoman Empire - Dissolution 1908–1922

The dissolution period begins with the onset of II. Constitutional government.

Three new Balkan states were shaped during the end of the 19th century. All three as well as Montenegro sought additional territories within the large Turkish-ruled regions known as Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace. The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century. Initially under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia, that resulted with the First Balkan War. The second Balkan War followed the first.

In a final effort to keep power in their hands by regaining at least some of the lost territories, and challenge British authority over the Suez canal, the triumvirate led by Turkish Minister of War Enver Pasha joined the Central Powers in World War I.

The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war. The Allies, including the newly formed ANZACs,were defeated in the Battle of Gallipoli, Iraq and the Balkans, British naval landings attempts had been repulsed, and some territories were regained. In the Caucasus the Ottomans lost ground in a series of battles, and over 100,000 soldiers, and Russians moved to a line from Trabzon, Erzurum, to Van. The Russian revolution gave the Ottomans a chance to regain these areas. However, continued British offensives proved to be too much. The Ottomans were eventually defeated at the end of the war by the Allies, due to key attacks by British General Edmund Allenby, assistance from Arab Revolt, and assistance from Republic of Armenia. In fact an Armenian Republic was being declared during the war, in contrast to Arab nations. Ottoman territories were annexed.

The initial agreement was Armistice of Mudros, and was followed by the Treaty of Sèvres. After a century from the last agreement of Ottomans, what it seems came out was the achievement of British policy in the Near East. Great Britain had obtained most of her desires, in the partition of the Ottoman Empire.

However, for other powers of Triple Entente, we have to look at the results of Turkish War of Independence. Turks were raised against the Serves, to expel the Greeks, to confront the Republic of Armenia, the Italians, the French and to threaten the British in the region of Straits. Finally Anatolian Turks asserted their right to an independent national existence, with the leadership of Turkish revolutionaries.

Turkish independence resulted with the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new republican assembly of Republic of Turkey. Republic of Turkey was founded on October 29, 1923 from the remnants of the empire, like many other states.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "History", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki