History of Mexico: Encyclopedia II - History of Mexico - Pre-Columbian Mexico before 1521 A.D.

History of Mexico - Pre-Columbian Mexico before 1521 A.D.

Though there are tantalizing fragments of evidence suggesting human habitation of Mexico more than 20,000 years ago, the first solid evidence comes from two kill sites in the northern Basin of Mexico. Based on the evidence these Hunter-Gatherer peoples lived off of mammoths and other animals. Ancient Mexicans began to selectively breed corn plants around 8,000 B.C. Evidence shows the explosion of pottery works by 2300 B.C. and the beginning of intensive farming between 1800 and 1500 BC.

Between 1800 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form. Some matured into advanced Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as the: Olmec, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huaxtec, Purepecha,Toltec and Mexica (a.k.a. "Aztecs"), which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before first contact with Europeans.

These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: pyramid-temples, cities, mathematics (becoming the first people in the world to use zero), astronomy, medicine, writing, precise calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an abacus, complex theology, chocolate, and the wheel.

Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. These very early and ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives, even before they possessed civilization. In fact, the later Mexican civilizations would all carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events.

At different points in time, three Mexican cities eventually became the largest cities in the world: Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula. These cities — among several others — blossomed as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies and theology. In turn, they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures.

While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico can be said to have had four major, unifying civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Toltec, and the Mexica. These four civilizations extended their reach across Mexico — and beyond — like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these four civilizations over the span of 4,000 years. Many made war with them. But almost all found themselves within these four spheres of influence.

Mexico's original civilization is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural blueprint by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico. Olmec civilization began with the production of pottery in abundance, around 2300 B.C. Between 1800 B.C. and 1500 B.C., the Olmec consolidated power into chiefdoms which established their capital at a site today known as San Lorenzo, near the coast in south-east Veracruz. The Olmec influence extended across Mexico, into Central America, and along the Gulf of Mexico. They transformed many peoples' thinking toward a new way of government, pyramid-temples, writing, astronomy, art, mathematics, economics, and religion. Their achievements would pave the way for the later greatness of the Maya civilization in the east, and the civilizations to the west in central Mexico.

The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 B.C. Teotihuacan, by 150 A.D. had risen to become the first true metropolis of what is now called North America. Teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. It's influence stretched across Mexico into Central America, founding new dynasties in the Mayan cities of Tikal, Copan, and Kaminaljuyú. Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be understated: it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan itself was a diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such as Zapotecs from the Oaxaca region. They lived in apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural prowess. By 500 A.D., Teotihuacan had become the largest city in the world. Teotihuacan's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a monumental new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about 650 B.C. -- but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around 950 A.D.

Contemporary with Teotihuacan's greatness was the greatness of the Maya civilization. The period between 250 A.D. and 650 A.D. saw an intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and writing that became the pinnacle of Mexico's scientific achievements.

Just as Teotihuacan had emerged from a power vacuum, so too did the Toltec civilization, which took the reigns of cultural and political power in Mexico from about 700 A.D. Many of the Toltec peoples were comprised of northern desert peoples, often called Chichimeca in Mexico's Nahuatl language. They fused their proud desert heritage with the mighty civilized culture of Teotihuacan. This new heritage would give rise to a new empire in Mexico. The Toltec empire would reach as far south as Central America, and as far north as the Anasazi corn culture in the Southwestern United States. The Toltec established a prosperous turquoise trade route with the northern civilization of Pueblo Bonito, in modern-day New Mexico. Toltec traders would trade prized bird feathers with Pueblo Bonito, while circulating all the finest wares that Mexico had to offer with their immediate neighbors. In the Mayan area of Chichen Itza, the Toltec civilization spread and the Maya were once again powerfully influenced by central Mexicans. The Toltec political system was so influential, that any serious Maya dynasty would later claim to be of Toltec descent. In fact, it was this prized Toltec lineage that would set the stage for Mexico's last great indigenous civilization.

With the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico. Into this new political game of contenders to the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the Mexica. They were also a proud desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves "Azteca," but changed their name after years of migrating. Since they were not from the Valley of Mexico, they were initially seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of Nahua civilization. Through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, they managed to pull off a true "rags to riches" story: they became the rulers of Mexico as the head of the 'Triple Alliance' (which included two other "Aztec" cities, Texcoco and Tlacopan) .

The Mexica-Aztecs were the rulers of much of central Mexico by about 1400 (while Yaquis, Coras and Apaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert), having subjugated most of the other regional states by the 1470s. At their peak, 300,000 Mexica presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising about 10 million people (almost half of Mexico's 24 million people). The modern name "Mexico" comes from the name of the ruling group of the "Aztec Triple Alliance", the "Mexica."

The term "Aztec" is actually a misnomer, an invention of an Englishman (Lord Kinsborough) and a European-American named William Prescott. The real indigenous names used were "Nahua" or "Mexica." Not even the Spanish called them Aztecs. (Although "Aztec" was not used by the Mexica, it does derive from their language, Nahuatl, and refers to their northern homeland, Aztlan.)

The Mexica (one of the Aztec groups), required education for all males, regardless of class. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli (for practical and military studies) and the calmecac (for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, etc).

Their capital, Tenochtitlan, is the site of modern-day Mexico City. In 1519, the Mexica capital was the largest city in the world with a population as high as 500,000 people (by comparison, London in 1519 had 80,000 people).

The Mexica left a deep and durable stamp upon Mexican culture, even to the present day. Much of what is considered Mexican culture today derives from this Mexica civilization: place-names, words, food, art, dress, symbols, and even the identity of "Mexican," itself a translation of the Mexica name.

For much of its history, the majority of Mexico's population lived an urban lifestyle: cities, towns, and villages. Only a fraction of the population was tribal and wandering. Most people were permanently-settled, agriculturally-based, and identified with an urban identity, as opposed to a tribal identity. Mexico has long been an urban land, which was graphically reflected in the writings of the Spaniards who encountered them.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Pre-Columbian Mexico before 1521 A.D.", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki