Ancient Egypt: Encyclopedia - Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile, reaching from the Nile Delta in the north as far south as Jebel Barkal at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). It lasted for three millennia, from circa 3200 BC to 343 BC, ending with the conquest of Alexander the Great. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.

Ancient Egypt - Geography

Most of Egypt is in North Africa; though the Sinai Peninsula is in Southwest Asia. The country has shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea; it borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip, Palestine and Israel to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. Somewhat counter-intuitively, Upper Egypt was in the south and Lower Egypt in the north, named according to the flow of the Nile. The Nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the Mediterranean rather than southward from a northerly point. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the Stone Age and Naqada cultures.

The area around the Nile was Kemet ("the black land", in Ancient Egyptian Kmt), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. The desert was called Deshret ("the red land"), c.f. Herodotus: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that Libya is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12).

Ancient Egypt - People

A recent genetic study links the maternal lineage of a traditional population from Upper Egypt to Eastern Africa ^[1]. A separate study further narrows the genetic lineage to Northeast Africa (^[2]) and reveals also that modern day Egyptians "reflect a mixture of African,European,and Middle Eastern."

Champollion the Younger, who deciphered the Rosetta Stone, claimed in Expressions et Termes Particuliers ("Expression of Particular Terms") that Kmt did not actually refer to the soil but to a negroid population in the sense of "Black Nation." Modern day professional Egyptologists, linguists and historians, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the soil rather than the people. Herodotus wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are black-skinned (melanchrôs) and wooly-haired (oulothrix)" (Histories Book 2:104). Later authors, including Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus, repeated Herodotus' description of "black-skinned". Melanchros is also used of the sunburnt complexion of Odysseus (Od. 16.176).

Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet ^[3], mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders ^[4].

A few teams of European scientists reported that cocaine, hashish and nicotine have been found in the skin and hair of Egyptian mummies ^[5]. The results of these studies have been harshly criticized (e.g., ref. ^[6]) by mainstream scientists and Egyptologists as flawed and inaccurate.

Ancient Egypt - History

The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called Punt, or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"). Once commonly thought to be located on what is today the Somali coast, Punt now is thought to have been in either southern Sudan or Eritrea. The history of ancient Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3000 BC. Though archaeological evidence indicates a developed Egyptian society may have existed for a much longer period (see Predynastic Egypt).

Along the Nile, in 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering peoples using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society (see Nile: History). There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC. By 6000 BC ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Mortar (masonry) was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture. Some authorities however begin the Predynastic Period earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic (see Predynastic Egypt).

Egypt unified as a single state circa 3000 BC. Egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptaica.

• List of pharaohs: The pharaohs stretch from before 3000 BC to around 30 BC.
• Dynasties (see also: List of Egyptian dynasties):
  • Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. 27th century BC)
  • Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries BC)
  • First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties)
  • Middle Kingdom of Egypt (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC)
  • Second Intermediate Period (14th to 17th Dynasties)
    • Hyksos (15th to 16th Dynasties)
  • New Kingdom of Egypt (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC)
  • Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC)
  • Late Period of Ancient Egypt (26th to 31st Dynasties; 7th century BC to 332 BC)
    • Achaemenid Dynasty
  • Graeco-Roman Egypt (332 BC to AD 639)
    • Ptolemaic Dynasty
    • Roman Empire

Ancient Egypt - Government

Nomes were the subnational administrative divisions of Upper and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh was the ruler of these two kingdoms and headed the ancient Egyptian state structure. The pharaoh served as monarch, spiritual leader and commander-in-chief of both the army and navy. The pharaoh was supposed to be divine, a connection between men and gods. Below him in the government, were the viziers (one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt) and various officials. Under him on the religious side were the high priest and various other priests. Generally, the position was handed down from father to eldest son. Sometimes this rule was broken, and occasionally a woman assumed power. ^[7]

Ancient Egypt - Language

The ancient Egyptians spoke an Afro-Asiatic language related to Chadic, Berber and Semitic languages. Records of the ancient Egyptian language have been dated to about 3200 BC. Scholars group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions:

• Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
• Old Egyptian (2600–2000 BC)
• Middle Egyptian (2000–1300 BC)
• Late Egyptian (1300–700 BC)
• Demotic Egyptian (7th century BC–4th century AD)
• Coptic (3rd–17th century AD)

Ancient Egypt - Writing

For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3200 BC. However recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on Gerzean pottery, c.4000 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms ^[8]. Also in 1998 a German archeological team under Gunter Dreyer excavating at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) uncovered tomb U-j, which belonged to a Predynastic ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphics dating to the Naqada IIIA period, circa 33rd century BC ^[9], ^[10].

Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as hieroglyphs, today standing as the world's earliest known writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ideographic. Hieratic is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term Demotic, in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the Nubian 25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Coptic language survived into the Middle Ages as the liturgical language of the Christian minority.

Beginning from around 2700 BC, Egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds -- both vowel and consonant vocalizations (see Hieroglyph: Script). By 2000 BC, 26 pictograms were being used to represent 24 (known) main vocal sounds. The world's oldest known alphabet (c. 1800 BC) is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other Egyptian hieroglyphs.

The hieroplyphic script finally fell out of use around the 4th century and began to be rediscovered after the 15th century (see Hieroglyphica).

Ancient Egypt - Literature

• c. 1800 BC: Story of Sinuhe
• c. 1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
• c. 1600 BC: Westcar Papyrus
• c. 1180 BC: Papyrus Harris I
• c. 1000 BC: Story of Wenamun

Ancient Egypt - Culture

The Egyptian religions, embodied in Egyptian mythology, were the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, until the coming of Christianity and Islam. These were conducted by Egyptian priests or magicians, but the use of magic and spells is questioned. The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. Ancient Egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order.

Evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient Egypt indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures, transmitted in one way over the Silk Road.

Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually symbolic.

Ancient Egypt - Ancient achievements

See Predynastic Egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the Sahara region before the Protodynastic Period.

The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as surveying). These skills were used to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic Cement was first invented by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai Peninsula.

The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet, decimal system ^[11] and complex mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids.

Ancient Egypt - Timeline

(All dates are approximate.)

See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.

• 3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
• 3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest known earthenware

• 3300 BC: Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
• 3200 BC: Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt)
• 3200 BC: Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document
• 3100 BC: Decimal system, ^[12], world's earliest (confirmed) use
• 3100 BC: Wine cellars, world's earliest known ^[13]
• 3100 BC: Mining, Sinai Peninsula
• 3050 BC: Shipbuilding in Abydos, ^[14]
• 3000 BC: Exports from Nile to Israel: wine (see Narmer)
• 3000 BC: Copper plumbing (see Copper: History)
• 3000 BC: Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
• 3000 BC: Medical Institutions
• 2900 BC: possible steel: carbon-containing iron, ^[15]
• 2700 BC: Surgery, world's earliest known
• 2700 BC: precision Surveying
• 2700 BC: Uniliteral signs, forming basis of world's earliest known alphabet
• 2600 BC: Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue
• 2600s–2500 BC: Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh Sahure. See also ^[16], ^[17].
• 2600 BC: Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian pyramids: Construction)
• 2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building
• 2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite
• 2600 BC: Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work

• 2580 BC: Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure until AD 1300
• 2500 BC: Beekeeping, ^[18]
• 2400 BC: Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity
• 2200 BC: Beer, ^[19]
• 1860 BC: possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt)
• 1800 BC: Alphabet, world's oldest known
• 1800 BC: Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, ^[20], 2nd order algebraic equations
• 1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum
• 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series
• 1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces as far back as c. 3000 BC
• 1550 BC: Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
• 1500 BC: Glass-making, world's earliest known
• 1258 BC: Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses II, ^[21])
• 1160 BC: Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic and topographic map
• 5th–4th century BC (or perhaps earlier): battle games petteia and seega; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins of chess)

• • c.2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
  • c.1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
  • c.1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
  • c.1400 BC: Tulli Papyrus
  • c.1300 BC: Brugsch Papyrus
  • Unknown date: Rollin Papyrus

Ancient Egypt - Open problems

There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated.

Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or batteries. The relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kites or gliders.

Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.

See also

• List of Ancient Egyptians
• Egyptology
• Unsolved problems in Egyptology
• History of Egypt
• List of Ancient Egyptian sites
• Egyptian Museum
• Race of the Ancient Egyptians
• Egypt in the European imagination

Ancient Egypt - Notes

1. ^  Entrez PubMed. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
2. ^  Entrez PubMed. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
3. ^  Entrez PubMed. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
4. ^  Entrez PubMed. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
5. ^  Entrez PubMed. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
6. ^  The Straight Dope: What's up with the "cocaine mummies"?. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
7. ^  Egypt - Ancient Egypt. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
8. ^  Egypt: History - Predynastic Period. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
9. ^  :: Discovery Channel CA ::. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
10. ^  Accounting Historians Journal, The: oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt, The. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
11. ^  Egypt: History - Predynastic Period (See above). URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
12. ^  Egyptian Mathematical Papyri - Mathematicians of the African Diaspora. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
13. ^  Egyptian Mathematical Papyri - Mathematicians of the African Diaspora (See above). URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
14. ^  http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf2.htm. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
15. ^  Francesco Raffaele Egyptology News. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
16. ^  Egypt: Science and chemistry in ancient Egypt. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
17. ^  MSIChicago : Exhibits : Ships Through the Ages. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
18. ^  The Ancient Egyptian Navy. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
19. ^  apiary2. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
20. ^  Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: Anceint Egyptian Alcohol and Beer. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
21. ^  Egyptian Mathematical Papyri - Mathematicians of the African Diaspora (See above). URL accessed on December 5, 2005.
22. ^  Egypt: Ramses the Great, The Pharaoh Who Made Peace with his Enemies And the First Peace Treaty in History. URL accessed on December 5, 2005.

Categories: Unsolved problems in Egyptology | Ancient Egypt

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Ancient Egypt", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki