Women in Hinduism: Encyclopedia - Women in Hinduism

Women in Hinduism

Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BC. They are varied in authority, aunthencity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the Vedas. The position of women in Hinduism is widely dependent on the specific text and the context. Positive references are made to the ideal woman in texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, while some texts such as the Manu Smriti advocate a restriction of women's rights.

Women in Hinduism - Gender of God

Of the four major sects within Hinduism, Shaktas worship Goddess Durga, who is all-powerful and strong and embodies feminine strength, and the impersonalists worship God as being of neither gender and present in all living beings. The other two, Vaishnavism and Shaivism regard Vishnu and Shiva respectively as God, both of whom are male.

Women in Hinduism - Status of women

In Rig Veda 8.1.6., Indra is described as being greater than a father and a brother, but equal to a mother.

Women in Hinduism - Marriage

In a Hindu marriage, both husband and wife are two parts of one, complementing each other and becoming one in their spiritual journey. The most sacred part of the cermony involves circumbulating the sacred fire in seven steps to a Vedic mantra where the groom addresses his wife thus

"Dear Wife! By taking these seven steps, you have become my dearest friend. I pledge my unfailing loyalty to you. Let us stay together for the rest of our lives. Let us not separate from each other ever. Let us be of one mind in carrying out our responsibilities as householders (grihasthas). Let us love and cherish each other and enjoy nourishing food and good health. Let us discharge our prescribed Vedic duties to our elders, ancestors, rishis, creatures, and gods. Let our aspirations be united. I will be the Saaman and may you be the Rk (Saaman here refers to the music and Rk refers to the Vedic text that is being cast into music). Let me be the upper world and let you be the Bhumi or Mother Earth. I will be the Sukla or life force and may you be the bearer of that Sukla. Let me be the mind and let you be the speech. May you follow me to conceive children and gain worldly as well as spiritual wealth. May all auspiciousness come your way."

The Vedas prescribe, as do most ancient cultures, that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom. The Rig Veda states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter accompanied the bride's procession [Rg Ved. X.85].

In the Manu Smriti, on the other hand, 8 types of marriage are specified; two involve bedecking the bride with costly garments and ornaments before giving her away, two involve the groom's family giving a gift to the bride's and the other four do not involve an exchange of gifts.

The Manusmriti enjoins 'Let mutual fidelity continue until death,' this may be considered as the summary of the highest law for husband and wife. [Manu IX 101]

The Manu Smriti prescribed that the best partner for a man was one-third his age. "A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases him, or a man of twenty-four a girl of eight years of age; if (the performance of) his duties would otherwise be impeded, he must marry sooner." [Manu IX.94] The girl would live with her husband after she reached puberty and consummation of the marriage would take place then.

Women in Hinduism - Divorce

Both Manusamhita and Arthashastra say that, if the husband is impotent, a traitor, evil-liver, has become an ascetic or an outcast or is missing for a prescribed number of years, then the wife can leave him without blame and marry again. Arthashastra also declares that in other circumstances, divorce can take place only by mutual consent. Manu discusses situations where the wife wishes to return to her first husband whether she has simply deserted him or had married another.

Women in Hinduism - Remarriage

According to all Hindu scriptures, a widow can remarry. The very term 'punurbhu' is defined as a woman, virgin or not-a-virgin, who has married again. There are several texts that lay down her property rights in various such situations and the rights of her children from both her previous and later marriages.

Women in Hinduism - Incest

Several references to incestuous relationships are made in the Rg Veda [Rg Ved. VI.55.4, X.3.3, I.116.19, I.91.7, III.31.1-2]. However, it is condemned as a sin in the Manu Smriti [Manu 11.59] and in the Rig Veda [X.10].

Women in Hinduism - Sati

(Complete article: Sati)

Sati is the voluntary immolation of a woman on her husband's funeral pyre. (It was practiced by the Scythians and also the ancient peoples of Scythia, Egypt, Scandinavia and China) Sati was performed ideally as an act of immortal love and was believed to purged the couple of all accumulated sin.

Though no scripture mandates it, the Puranas, part of the Hindu Smriti, mention sati as highly meritorious in several instances. A few instances of sati are recorded in the Hindu epics, which are otherwise replete with influential widows. Some examples from the Mahabharata include:

• several of Vasudeva's wives (Rohini, Devaki, Bhadraa and Madira) [M.Bh. Mausalaparvan 7.18].
• Madri, second wife of Pandu, who held herself responsible for his death, performed sati. His first wife Kunti did not commit sati. [M.Bh. Adiparvan 95.65]

Women in Hinduism - Property rights

Arthashastra and Manusamhita are sources about the woman's right to property or ‘Stridhan’, (literally meaning, property of wife). It is of two types: maintenance (in money or land given by the husband), and anything else like ornaments given to her by her family, husband, in-laws and the friends of her husband. Manu further subdivides this into six types - the property given by parents at marriage, given by the parental family when she is going to her husband’s house, given by her husband out of affection (not maintenance which he is bound to give), and property given separately by brother, mother and father [Manu IX 194]. Pre-nuptial contracts are also mentioned where the groom would agree to give a set amount of brideprice to both parents and the bride. Such property belonged to the wife alone and was not to be touched by the groom or her parents except in emergencies (in sickness, in famine, threated by robbers, or for performing holy deeds). At the same time, the Manu Smriti contradicts itself by declaring that a wife has no property and the wealth earned is for the husband [Manu VIII.416].

Daughters and sons equally inherited their mother's property; but some scriptures insist that a mother's property belongs solely to the daughters [Manu IX 131], in order of preference: unmarried daughters, married but poor daughters, married and rich daughters. When a father died, unmarried daughters had to be given a share in their father’s property, equal to one-fourth from every brother's share [since it is assumed that the married daughter had been given her share at marriage] [Manu IX. 118]. If the family has no sons, the (appointed) daughter is the sole inheritor of the property [Manu IX 127].

Women in Hinduism - Study of Scriptures

Several women sages and seers are mentioned in the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the Vedas, notable among them being Gargi and Maitreyi. The sanskrit word for female teachers as Acharyā (as opposed to Acharya for teacher and Acharyini for teacher's wife) reveal that women were also given a place as Gurus.

In contrast, the Bhagavat Purana, says that women are unfit for hearing the Veda:

"And as women, Sudras and the inferior members of the twice-born classes were unfit for hearing the Veda, and were infatuated with the blessings arising from the ceremonies, the muni, with a vision to their felicity, in his kindness, composed the narrative called the Mahabharata." [Bhag.Pur. I.4.25]

See also

• Women in India

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Women in Hinduism", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki