Ulster: Encyclopedia - Ulster

Ulster

Ulster (Irish: Cúige Uladh, IPA: /ˈkuːgʲ ˈulu/) is one of the four provinces of Ireland.

Ulster - Geography and demographics

Ulster has a population of just under 2 million people and an area of 24,481 square kilometres (8,952 square miles). Its biggest city is Belfast (Béal Feirste).

Six of Ulster's nine counties, Antrim (Aontroim), Armagh (Ard Mhacha), Down (An Dún), Fermanagh (Fear Manach), Londonderry (Doire) and Tyrone (Tír Eoghain), form Northern Ireland, and remained in the United Kingdom after the rest of Ireland seceded. Some unionists refer to Northern Ireland as "Ulster", but that usage is controversial and disputed by many, especially geographers and historians who use the term exclusively to apply to the nine counties. Three counties, Cavan (An Cabhán), Donegal (Dún na nGall) and Monaghan (Muineachán) are part of the Republic of Ireland. About half of Ulster's population live in Antrim and Down.

English is the main language spoken by virtually everyone in Ulster, with the exception of a handful of Irish-speaking monoglots in the Donegal Gaeltacht and some immigrants. Many people in the Gaeltacht speak Irish as their native language, though most speak English from primary school age onwards. Irish is probably the second most widely-spoken language, although this is hard to verify as many claim fluency while only having a basic working knowledge of the language. Cantonese is the third most common mostly due to the considerable Chinese community of Belfast, the province's largest city. Belfast has more Chinese restaurants per capita than any other European city.

The biggest lake in the British Isles, Lough Neagh, is in eastern Ulster. The province's highest point is Slieve Donard, in Down (848 metres). The most northerly point of Ireland, Malin Head, and the second highest sea cliffs in Europe, at Slieve League, are in Donegal. The longest river in the British Isles, the Shannon, rises in Cavan. Volcanic activity in eastern Ulster led to the formation of the Antrim Plateau and the Giant's Causeway, one of Ireland's three UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The geographical centre of Ulster is near the village of Pomeroy, in Tyrone.

Ulster - History and politics

Ulster - Early history

Ulster is one of the four Irish provinces. Its name derives from the Irish language Cúige Uladh (pronounced "KOO-gi OO-lah"), meaning "Province (literally 'fifth') of the Ulaid," named for the ancient inhabitants of the region.[1] The Irish Uladh with the addition of the Old Norse ster, meaning "province," yields "Uladh Ster" or, in English, "Ulster."

The province's early history extends further back than written records and is known only by legends such as the Ulster Cycle. In early medieval Ireland, Ulster was dominated by the Uí Néill dynasty who were based in Tír Eoghan (Eoghan's Country) - modern Tyrone. After the Norman invasion of the twelfth century, the east of the province was conquered by Norman barons, first De Courcy, then De Lacy, who founded the Earldom of Ulster - based around the modern counties of Antrim and Down. However, by the end of the 15th century, the Earldom had collapsed and Ulster was the only Irish province to be completely outside of English control.

In the 1600s Ulster functioned as the last redoubt of the traditional Gaelic way of life, and following the defeat of the Irish forces in the Nine Years War at the battle of Kinsale (1601), Elizabeth I succeeded in subjugating Ulster and all of Ireland. The Gaelic leaders of Ulster, the O'Neills, and O'Donnells decamped en masse in 1607 to Catholic Europe, finding their power under English suzerainty limited. This allowed the Crown to settle Ulster with more loyal English and Scottish planters, which began in earnest in 1610.

Ulster - Plantations and civil wars

The Plantation of Ulster, which was government run, settled only the counties confiscated from those Irish clans that were involved in the Nine Years War. This involved dispossessing thousands of the native Irish, who were forced by the Crown to take up poorer land. Counties Donegal, Tyrone, Armagh, Cavan, Londonderry and Fermanagh were included in the official plantation. However, the most extensive settlement in Ulster of English and Scots occurred in Antrim and Down, which were not officially planted, but had been de-populated during the war and were attractive to settlers from nearby Scotland. This unofficial settlement continued well into the 18th century, interrupted only by the Catholic uprising of 1641. This rebellion, initially led by Phelim O'Neill, was intended to be a quick siezure of power, but quickly degenerated into attacks on Protestant settlers. Thousands of Protestants were slaughtered by dispossessed Catholics, an event which remains strong in Ulster Protestant folk memory. In the ensuing wars (fought against the background of civil war in England, Scotland and Ireland), Ulster became a battleground between the Protestant settlers and the native Irish Catholics. In 1646, the Irish Catholic army under Owen Roe O'Neill inflicted a bloody defeat on a Scottish Covenanter army at Benburb in county Tyrone, but failed to follow up their victory and the war lapsed into stalemate. The war in Ulster ended with the defeat of the Irish Catholic army at the battle of Scarrifholis in 1650 and the occupation of the province by the Cromwellian New Model Army. The atrocities committed by all sides in the war poisoned the relationship between Ulster's ethno-religious communities for generations afterwards.

Forty years later, in 1688-1691, the conflict was re-fought in the Williamite war in Ireland, when Irish Catholics ("Jacobites") supported James II who had been deposed in the Glorious Revolution and Ulster Protestants (Williamites) backed William of Orange. At the start of the war, Irish Catholic Jacobites controlled all of Ireland for James, with the exception of the Protestant strongholds at Derry and Enniskillen in Ulster. The Jacobites besieged Derry from December 1688 to July 1689, when the city was relieved by a Williamite army from Britain. Another Jacobite army was defeated by the Protestant Williamite fighters based in Enniskillen at the battle of Newtownbutler on July 28, 1689. Thereafter, Ulster was firmly under Williamite control and they completed their conquest of therest of Ireland in the next two years. Ulster Protestant irregulars known as "Enniskilleners" served with the Williamite forces. The war provided Protestant loyalists with the iconic victories of the Siege of Derry, the Battle of the Boyne and the Battle of Aughrim, all of which are still commemorated today. See Also: Twelfth of July.

The Williamite's victory in this war ensured British and Protestant supremecy in Ireland for over 100 years. Under the subsequent Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, most of Ulster's population was excluded from power on religious grounds. Roman Catholics, descended from the indigenous Irish, and Presbyterians, mainly descended from Scottish planters, were both discriminated against by the Penal Laws, which gave full political rights only to Anglican Protestants, who were mostly descended from English settlers. In the 1690s, Scottish Presbyterians became a majority in Ulster, tens of thousands of them having emigrated there to escape a famine in Scotland.

Ulster - Republicanism rebellion and communal strife

Most of the eighteenth century saw a calming of sectarian tensions in Ulster. The economy of the province improved, as small producers exported linen and other goods. Belfast developed from a village into a bustling provincial town. However, this did not stop many thousands of Ulster people from emigrating to America in this period, where they became known as the "Scotch Irish." Political tensions resurfaced, albeit in a new form, towards the end of the century. In the 1790s, many Catholics and Presbyterians, in opposition to Anglican domination and inspired by the American and French revolutions joined together in the United Irishmen movement. This group (which was founded in Belfast) was dedicated to found a non-sectarian independent Irish republic. The United Irishmen were particularly strong in Belfast, Antrim and Down. However, paradoxically, this period also saw much sectarian violence between Catholics and Protestants, principally members of the Church of Ireland (Anglicans, who practised the state religion and had rights denied to both Presbyterians and Catholics), notably the "battle of the Diamond" in 1795, a faction fight between the rival "Defenders" (Catholic) and "Peep of Day Boys" (Anglican), which led to over 100 deaths and to the founding of the Orange Order. This event, and many others like it, came about as the Penal Laws were relaxed and Catholics began to purchase land and involve themselves in the linen trade, activities which previously had involved many onerous restrictions. Protestants, including Presbyterians, who in some parts of the province had come to identify with the Catholic community, used violence to intimidate Catholics who tried to enter the linen trade. It has been estimated that up to 7000 Catholics were expelled from Ulster during this violence. Many of them settled in northern Connacht. These refugees' influence can still be heard in the dialects of Irish spoken in Mayo, which have many similarities to Ulster Irish not found elsewhere in Connacht. Loyalist militias, primarily Anglicans, also used violence against the United Irishmen and Catholic and Protestant republicans throughout the province.

In 1798, the United Irishmen led by Henry Joy McCracken launched a rebellion in Ulster, mostly supported by Presbyterians, but were swiftly put down by the British authorities, who employed severe repression after the fighting had ended. In the wake of the failure of this rebellion, and the gradual abolition of official religious discrimination after the Act of Union in 1800, Presbyterians came to identify more with the state and their Anglican neighbours, who perceived them as the lesser of two evils.

Ulster - Industrialisation home rule and partition

In the 19th century, Ulster became the most prosperous province in Ireland, with the only large-scale industrialisation in the country. In the latter part of the century, Belfast overtook Dublin as the largest city on the island. Belfast became famous in this period for its huge dockyards and shipbuilding - notably of the RMS Titanic. In the 19th century sectarian divisions in Ulster became hardened into the policial categories of unionist (supporters of the Union with Britain, mostly Protestant) and nationalist (advocates of Irish independence, usually, though not only, Catholic). The origins of Northern Ireland's current politics lie in these late 19th century disputes over Home Rule for Ireland, which Ulster Protestants usually opposed - fearing for their status in an autonomous Catholic-dominated Ireland and also not trusting politicians from the agrarian south and west with supporting the more industrial economy of Ulster. To resist Home Rule, thousands of unionists, led by Edward Carson and James Craig signed the "Ulster Covenant" of 1912 pledging to resist Irish independence. This movement also saw the creation of the Ulster Volunteer Force, the first Irish paramilitary group, in order to resist British attempts to enforce Home Rule. In response, Irish nationalists created the Irish Volunteers - forerunners of the IRA to ensure the passing of the Home Rule Act 1914.

This armed stand-off was interupted by the outbreak of World War I, in which thousands of Ulstermen of all religions were killed. In particlar, the heavy casualties of the 36th Ulster Division - largely composed of Volunteers from the UVF became both a source of mourning and pride for the loyalist community, down to the present day. In the aftermath of the War, Ireland saw several years of political violence, with Irish nationalists launching a guerrilla campaign against British rule (see Anglo-Irish War). In Ulster, the fighting generally took the form of street battles between Protestants and Catholics in the city of Belfast.It has been estimated that 2-3000 civilians were killed in this communal violence, the majority of victims being Catholics. The IRA was relatively quiet in Ulster, with the exception of the south Armagh area, where it was led by Frank Aiken. The formal end to hostilities were ended by the enactment of the Government of Ireland Act, 1920 followed by the Anglo-Irish Treaty which ended in the partition of Ireland between the Irish Free State (now Republic of Ireland) and Northern Ireland. However, low-level violence, often involving the B-Specials, continued in Ulster, causing Michael Collins to order a boycott on northern produce, in protest at the attacks on the Catholic/Nationalist community. In 1922 six out of Ulster's nine counties became Northern Ireland and remained in the United Kingdom, whilst the rest became part of the Irish Free State. For the subsequent history of Ulster see History of Northern Ireland and History of the Republic of Ireland.

Ulster - Current politics

Although some of the Catholics of Northern Ireland have long opposed its existence, the Ulster Protestants of the three Republic of Ireland counties have assimilated well (although there was a good deal of migration into the new Northern Ireland state following partition). Some sectarian tensions remain. The Orange Order freely organises in Donegal, Cavan and Monaghan, with a large 12 July march taking place in Rossknowlagh in Donegal annually with the full co-operation of the Garda Siochána and the local Catholic population.

Electorally, while voting in Northern Ireland tends to follow religious lines, (the Democratic Unionist Party has very few Catholic members, the Ulster Unionist Party has not that many more) no such religious demarcation exists in the three Ulster counties in the Republic of Ireland. All parties are open to all persuasions, with one Church of Ireland TD (Teachta Dála, a member of the lower house of the National Parliament) who had represented Monaghan, Erskine Hamilton Childers, being elected President of Ireland, having served as a longterm minister under Fianna Fáil Taoisigh Éamon de Valera, Sean Lemass and Jack Lynch.

Eight of the eighteen MPs elected from Northern Ireland are Catholics. One of the ten TDs elected from the three counties in the Republic is a Protestant. The southern parties have long ceased to base their selection of candidates purely on any religious criteria. For most of the twentieth century they chose at least one candidate from a Protestant background to attract the protestant vote but the disappearance of a block Protestant vote voting exclusively for a candidate on the basis of religion, with Protestant voters instead voting primarily for local candidates irrespective of religion, means that selection is now based largely on considerations of geography when electing TDs to Dáil Éireann.

There remains one occasional exception. Where the parties find that two candidates from a local area are seeking a nomination, and one is Protestant in an area of with a large Protestant electorate, the national party sometimes gives preference to that candidate, with sometimes the Protestant candidate being added to the ticket by the national headquarters. But it not automatic and is only used in those circumstances where a party can gain no competitive advantage from geography alone and where a candidate's ability to pick up one or two per cent extra in a part of a constituency because of their religion, could prove decisive in winning a seat. Unlike in Northern Ireland, there is no evidence of the corrollary being the case, namely that a Protestant candidate, because of their Protestantism, might lose the support of some Catholic voters. Indeed some of the most successful Protestant candidates won seats in situations where the majority of their votes can from Catholics.

Though few Protestants have of late sought party nominations to run for Dáil Éireann, a larger number continues to seek nominations, and get elected, to local councils in the Donegal, Cavan and Monaghan areas.

In the early 2000s TDs were banned from also being councillors, so as to separate local and national government more clearly, may discourage councillors who wish to remain on the council from seeking Dáil seats. It is unclear as of 2005 whether this may have an impact in discouraging the disproporionately high number of Protesant councillors, many of whom have long-held council seats passed on through the generations, which they may wish to hold but which they would have to give up if elected, from seeking to run from the Dáil.

The flag of Ulster was the basis for the official flag of Northern Ireland until the Stormont parliament was prorogued in 1973.

Ulster - Sport

In Rugby union, the Ulster branch of the Irish Rugby Football Union plays as a professional club in the Celtic League, along with clubs from Wales, Scotland and the professional clubs from the other Irish Provinces (Leinster, Munster and Connacht).

Association football (soccer) is divided by the border since 1921: there is a Northern Ireland (international) team, but not an Ulster team; there are separate football championships (Irish League in Northern Ireland, League of Ireland in the rest of Ulster). Anomalously, Derry City F.C. has played in the League of Ireland since 1985.

In Gaelic games, Ulster counties compete with the other Irish counties in the All-Ireland Championships and National Leagues, as well as the All-Ireland inter-club championships. The whole province fields a team to play the other provinces in the Railway Cup. Gaelic football is by far the most popular of the Gaelic games in Ulster, with counties Derry, Antrim, and Down existing as 'isolated' Hurling counties.

See also

• Kings of Ulster
• Provinces of Ireland
• Ulster-Scots (people)
• Ulster Scots language
• Mid Ulster English
• Ulster Irish
• Plantations of Ireland
• Culture of Ulster
• Ulster GAA

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Ulster", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki