Jainism: Encyclopedia - Jainism

Jainism

Jainism (pronounced in English as /ˈdʒeɪ.nɪzm̩/), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म) , is a religion and philosophy originating in the prehistory of South Asia. Now a minority in modern India with growing communities in the US, Western Europe, Africa and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) tradition. Jainism has significantly influenced the ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millenia. Jainism stresses the spiritual independence and equality of all life. Self-control (व्रत, vrata in Sanskrit) is one of the central tenets of the Jain faith.

A lay Jain is termed a shravaka (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ) has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and women.

Jainism - Overview of Jain Dharma

Jain philosophy is a codification of eternal universal truths, which at times lapse among humanity, but later reappear through the teachings of human beings who have gained enlightenment or omniscience (Keval Gnan). According to tradition, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ, sometimes pronounced as रिषभ) was the first to realize those truths in this place and time cycle. More recently were Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman Mahavira (महावीर) (599–527 BCE).

Jainism teaches that every single living thing is an individual and eternal soul, called jīva, which is responsible for its own actions. Jains see this faith as teaching the individual to live, think and act in ways that respect and honor the spiritual nature of every living being to the best of one's human abilities. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chief among them being Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness ('Ananta Jnän, Ananta Darshan, Ananta Chäritra,' and ' Ananta Sukh') — but as such does not believe in any single Omnipotent Supreme Being (see Ishvara). The universe itself is seen as being eternal, having no beginning and no end, precluding God from being its creator.

The primary figures of Jainism are the Tirthankaras. Jainism has two main variants: Digambar and Shvetambar. Jains believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsara, and the jiva. Jain philosophy has many scriptures written over a long period of time. One of the most cited scripture among all Jains is Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Realities written over 18 centuries ago by the monk-scholar Umasvati (also known as Umasvami).

Compassion to all fellow living beings (along with humans) is central to being a Jain. It is the only religion where all followers, both monks and practicing lay persons, are traditionally vegetarian. In regions of India with strong Jain influence, often the majority of the population is vegetarian. In many towns, the Jains run animal shelters. In Delhi, there is a bird hospital run by a Jain temple. Many historians believe that Hinduism adopted vegetarianism as a recommendation (though never a requirement or a dogma) because of the strong influence of Jainism and Buddhism.

As part of its stance on nonviolence, Jainism goes even beyond vegetarianism, in that the Jain diet also excludes most root vegetables, as Jains believe such vegetables have an infinite number of individual souls, invisible to the naked eye. Jains also do not eat certain other foods believed to be unnecessarily injurious. Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset, and always rise before sunrise.

Anekantavada is one of the foundation pillars of Jain philosophy. Literally meaning "Non-one-endedness" or "Nonsingular Conclusivity", Anekantavada is a set of tools for overcoming the inherent bias in any one perspective on a given subject, object, process, state, or reality in general. One of these tools is known as The Doctrine of Postulation, i.e., Syādvāda.

Jains can be remarkably open-minded towards other dharmas. For example, several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the institutions of Dharmasthala including the Manjunath Temple for eight centuries. There are examples of Jains donating money for building churches and mosques. In India, Jains have often helped organize multi-religious discussions and functions, and have also been involved in activities to promote harmony among followers of rival faiths to help defuse communal tensions.

Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences, and the politics of Mohandas Gandhi, which led to Indian independence.

Jainism - Universal History and Jain Cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages (yugas). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these "cycles", which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years.

When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called Tirthankaras (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on.

In each of these enormously long alternations of time there are always twenty-four Tirthankaras. In the current world age, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavira in 527 BC. Jains regard him and all Tirthankars as a reformer who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is said to be based. Hence the epithet Bhagavan is applied to Mahavira and most other Tirathankaras in the sense of the Venerable One.

The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this age is known by his title, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). He too was a wandering ascetic teacher who attempted to recall the Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.

Jains believe that reality is made up of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of an infinite number of identical spiritual units; ajiva (that is, non-jiva) is matter in all its forms and the conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement.

Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, et cetera.

Any contact whatsoever of the jiva with the ajiva causes the former to suffer. Thus the Jains believed that existence in this world inevitably means suffering. Neither social reform nor the reform of individuals themselves can ever stop suffering. In every human being, a jiva is trapped, and the jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. The only way to escape from suffering is, for the jiva to completely escape from the four ghatis (stage) of Human, Heavenly bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish/ etc life, and Hell, by practising the teaching of jainism continuously, to attain liberation, salvation, and finally moksha the ultimate aim.

Karma and transmigration keep the jiva trapped in ajiva. Achieving release from the human condition is difficult. The Jains believe that the jiva continues to suffer during all its lives or reincarnations, which are of an indefinite number. They believe that every action that a person performs, be it good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of the next reincarnation.

The consequence of evil actions is a heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower level in the scale of existence. The consequence of good deeds, on the other hand, is a light karma, which allows the jiva to rise in its next life to a higher level in the scale of existence, where there is less suffering to be endured. However, good deeds alone can never lead to release.

The way to moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by virtue of which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma operates to keep the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which the jiva suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus the way of escape must involve an escape from karma, the destruction of all karma and the avoidance of new karma.

Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it down, the jiva will float free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the top of the universe to a place or state called Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, isolation and noninvolvement. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from all involvement in the world as much as possible, and close the channel of the senses and the mind to prevent karmic matter from entering and adhering to the jiva. Such kind of an eternal liberation from the unbinding of the Jiva and the Pudgala (ajiva), such that no new reincarnation occurs into the material world, is called as Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) is the cause of binding, and true knowledge (kevala jñāna) is the cause of liberation.

S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology after the following manner:

Jainism - Beliefs and practices

On one hand, there are the monks, who practice severe asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there are the lay people, who pursue less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and do good deeds in this birth. Due to the strict ethics embedded in Jainism, the laity must choose a profession and livelihood that does not involve violence to self and other living beings.

In their effort to attain their highest and most exalted state of being a Siddha, which is the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, the Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them in any way. The Jains consider that the devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help the jiva to obtain release. This has to be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, the devas cannot even gain their own release until they are reincarnated as humans and undertake the difficult actions of removing the karmas.

The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are:

1. Nonviolence (ahinsa, or ahimsa)
2. Truth (satya)
3. Non-stealing (asteya)
4. Chastity (brahmacharya)
5. Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah)

For lay people, 'chastity' means confining sexual experience to the marriage relationship. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being strictly vegetarian. The Jain is expected to follow the principle of non-violence in all his/her thoughts, words and deeds, not only towards fellow human beings, but also towards all living creature. There are some Jains who wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid any possibility of breathing in tiny insects.

Along with the above 5 traits JAINS also believe in forgiving others and keeping no harm feelings against any one in the heart. There is few more things which they completely believe in like AATMA can lead one to become PARMATMA but voice has to come form inner-self and no one can lead some one to any path but can only show the path. Also they think that one should not become angry as that is the biggest enemy on a human. They completely trust in the belief “JEEYO AUR JEENE DO” (live and let others live).

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by the Jain emphasis on a peaceful, non-harming way of life which is common to the Jain philosophy and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.

Jainism - Jain Symbols

Jains have few core symbols. One Jain symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of the hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastika.

Major Jains symbols include:

• 24 Lanchhanas for Tirthankaras
• The Ashta-mangalas
• Om
• Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols.
• The dreams of Tirthankara's mother
• Dharma-chakra and Siddha-chakra

Jainism - Jain Literature

The oldest Jain literature is in Ardha-Magadhi and Maharashtri Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Jain literature was also written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars etc), Hindi (Chhah-dhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka etc), Tamil (Jivakachintamani, Kural etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane etc.). See Jain literature for more details.

Jainism - Jain Worship and Rituals

Jains have built temples where images of their Tirthankaras are venerated. Jain rituals can be elaborate and include offerings of symbolic objects, with the Tirthankaras being praised in chant. In some Jain sects, temples and images are not required.

Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer, the Navakar Mantra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship.

Jain worship may or may not involve temples. The sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains and the followers of Shrimad Rajachandra sect do not have temples. The Taranpanthi Jains have temples, but have books in place of idols.

Jain rituals include:

• Pancha-kalyanaka Pratishtha
• Pratikramana
• Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.

The Jain rituals for marriage and other family rites are distinct and uniquely Indian, usually minor variants of those in orthodox Hinduism.

Jainism - Digambar and Shvetambar Traditions

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Svetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect.

The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes because they believe Lord Mahavira did not wear any clothes and clothes are possessions, thereby increasing desire. The Svetambar monks wear white clothes because they believe there is nothing in Jain religious books to condemn the wearing of clothes. The different points of view are caused by different interpretations of similar holy books. The sadhvis (lady religious persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's Agama (sacred) literature.

There are also many other differences between Digambar and Shvetambar traditions. The former believe that women cannot attain moksha, and that all Jain religious texts have been modified in some way. Shvetambars believe the opposite, that women can attain liberation and that there are still untampered with texts.

Some historians believe that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Svetambar tradition.

Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Svetambaras.

Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects, such as Sthanakvasi, Terapanth, Deravasi, and Bisapantha. Some of these can be divided into murtipujak (idol worshipper) and not murtipujak. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.

Jainism - Geographical spread and influence

It has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism.

The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.

At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab.

It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad.

There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles.

Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, and Afghanistan, though in much minority as compared to Buddhism.

Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions.

Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

Jainism - Jain Contributions to Indian Culture

While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable.

The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.

Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions garlic etc.

According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions.

Literature The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages.

• In Kannada almost entire early literature is of Jain origin.
• Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
• Several of the Tamil classics are written by Jain Authors or have Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
• Practically all of the known texts of Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

Jainism - Jainism and Indian Archaeology

Decipherment of Brahmi James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.

Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later period.

Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the 'specialized sources', below.)

Jainism - Holy sites

There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.

• Shravanabelagola, monumental statue of the Jain saint Gomateshwara in Hassan District, Karnataka.
• Dilwara Temples, complex of white marble Jain temples on Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
• Ranakpur Temples, extensive complex of white marble Jain temples in Ranakpur, Rajasthan.
• Palitana, most visited Jain temple in Gujarat.
• Bawangaja, a complex of Jain temples and monumental statues in Barwani District, Madhya Pradesh.
• Gwalior's fort is home to dozens of Jain rock-cut sculptures.
• Shikharji in Madhuban, Bihar has a series of temples on mountains where the Tirthankaras attained Keval Gyan
• Bajrangarh, Atisaya-kshetra in Guna district in Madhya Pradesh, India
• Kundalpur, Siddha-kshetra having 63 temples, famous for beautiful statue of Bade Baba in Damoh district in Madhya Pradesh, India

Jainism - Jain Temples in the West

• UK
  • The Jain Centre in Leicester, England, the first Jain Temple consecrated in the western world

• USA
  • The Jain Center of Greater Boston in Norwood, Massachusetts is the first Jain Center in North America.
  • The Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago in Barlett, Illinois
  • The Jain Center of Northern California in Milpitas, California
  • The Jain Center of America in Elmhurst, New York
  • The Jain Center of Greater Atlanta in Atlanta, Georgia
  • The Jain Society of Greater Detroit in Farmington Hills, Michigan

Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html

Jainism - Holy days

• Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Shwetambar) day fasts, to observe, 10/8 important principles to follow.
• Mahavir Jayanti, birthday of Mahavir.
• Diwali, day of attaining nirvana by Mahavir.
• Kshamavaani, The day of asking forgiveness from all.

The Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.

Jainism - Jainism and other religions

India has a rich history of diverse philosophies. The term Hindu includes followers of Vedic, Vaishnava, Shaiva and other traditions. These traditions share a common cultural background with Jainism. Buddhism, like Jainism, represents the ancient Shramana tradition of India. Connections among these are discussed at:

• Jainism and Hinduism
• Jainism and Buddhism
• Jainism and Sikhism

Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:

• Jainism and Christianity
• Jainism and Judaism
• Jainism and Islam

See also

• Jain community
• Tamil Jains
• Jainism in Delhi
• American Jainism
• Jainism in Mumbai

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Jainism", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki