 | Hinduism: Encyclopedia II - Hinduism - Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought
Hinduism - Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought
Main article: Hindu philosophy
The six Āstika or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Sāmkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāmsā (also called just 'Mīmāmsā'), and Uttara Mīmāmsā (also called 'Vedanta'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nāstika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are Pūrva Mīmāmsā, Yoga, and Uttara Mīmāmsā. See Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of Sāmkhya, Nyāya, and Vaisheshika.
Hinduism - Pūrva Mīmāmsā
Main article: Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of Pūrva ("earlier") Mīmāmsā school (also simply called Mīmāmsā) was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals.
Hinduism - Yoga
Main article: Yoga
Yoga means union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goals are moksha or samadhi. It, like the Upanishads, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God (Īshvara).
The Upanishads, sage Patanjali's Yoga Sūtra and the Bhagavad Gītā are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on Rāja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga and Jñāna Yoga. Of these, the Yoga Sūtra is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy. Yoga's proposition of healthy postures has made it highly polupar even in the Western world.
Hinduism - Uttara Mimāmsā: Vedānta and its three main schools
Main article: Vedanta
The Uttara ("later") Mimāmsā school, also called as Vedānta, is perhaps the central pillar of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and establishing a strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the Upanishads and their commentaries by Bādarāyana — the Vedānta Sūtras, Vedānta thought — according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three principal (and three other) groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought, which focused on unity of the whole God. The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, Advaita and the schools such as those of Rāmānuja and Madhva, focused on the true nature of Brahman — on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature. The world famous sect of ISKCON, worshipping Krishna, follows the Vedantic philosophy of Achintya Bhedābheda by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
Main article: Advaita
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus, this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes oneness of all Divine. Its proponent was Adi_Sankara (788?-820?, also known as Shankarāchārya). Shankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and his own guru Govinda Bhagavadpada. By the analysis of Vedas, he proposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical. Reality is categorised into three levels: Transcendental, Pragmatic and Apparent. As compared to the Brahman which is the Supreme Reality, everything else, including the universe, the individuals and even Īshvara are not true. The universe, the individuals and Īshvara are true only in the Pragmatic level.
To the Advaitists (nondualists), the Ultimate Reality is best expressed as Nirguna Brahman, or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions (at best, it may be defined as Infinite Truth, Infinite Consciousness and Infinite Bliss). All personal forms of God (Īshvara) such as Vishnu or Shiva or the Mother Goddess are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, Saguna Brahman. In fact, when a person tries to know the Cosmic Spirit (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the Supreme Lord (Īshvara), under the effect of an illusioanry power of Brahman called Māyā. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of Māyā. True knowledge of the Brahman (Jñāna) is the only way to liberation; however, good Karma and Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Shankara had also condemned the caste system.
Main article: Vishistadvaita
Rāmānuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Lord Nārāyana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: Īshvara (Vishnu), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Rāmānuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. Karma along with Bhakti for is the true path for liberation.
Main article: Dvaita
Like Rāmānuja, Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedānta. Bhakti is the only way for liberation.
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