Genghis Khan: Encyclopedia - Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan

• Borjigin Jochi, son
  
• Borjigin Chagatai, son
  
• Borjigin Ögedei, son
  
• Borjigin Tolui, son
  

Genghis Khan ▶ (help·info) (c. 1162¹–August 18, 1227) (Cyrillic: Чингис Хаан), (also spelled as Chinggis Khan, Jenghis Khan, etc.), (pronounced ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ), born as Temüjin (Тэмүүжин), was a 13th century Mongol conquerer. He was the Great Khan (Emperor) and founder of the Mongol Empire (Их Монгол Улс), (1206–1368), the largest contiguous empire in recorded human history, after uniting the Mongol tribes by 1206.

In modern Mongolia Genghis Khan is regarded as a military and strategic genius and father of the nation of Mongolia, for his historical role in uniting the Mongol tribes and giving them a common identity. He also made contributions in directing the effort in creating a writing system for the Mongolian language.

Genghis Khan - Birth and early life

Little is known about his early years, but Temüjin was born sometime around 1162¹ in Hentiy, Mongolia. His birthplace was most likely the mountainous area of Burhan Haldun. He was the eldest son of Yesükhei, a tribal chief of the Kiyad. Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and his mother, Hoelun, was of the Olkhunut tribe of the Mongol confederation.

Based on legends and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the marriageable age of 14. Shortly thereafter, his father was murdered by the neighboring Tatars while returning home. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished nomads, surviving primarily on marmots and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin reportedly murdered his half-brother Bekhter over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. Despite being reproached by his mother he never expressed any remorse over the killing. In another, he was captured in a raid by his former tribe, the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut planned on executing Temüjin, but he escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons in survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. Around this time, Jelme and Borchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him. They, along with his brothers, provided the manpower needed for early expansion and diplomacy for Temüjin.

Around the age of 16, Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe. Later she was kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe, and Temüjin called on his friend and later rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Wang Khan of the Kerait tribe, for aid and rescued her. Börte's first child, Jochi, was born about nine months after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions about the child's paternity -- although Genghis fiercely contended that Jochi was his son. Temüjin became blood brothers (anda) with Jamuka and thus the two made a vow to be faithful to each other for eternity.

Genghis Khan - His family

Genghis was related through his father to Qabul Khan, Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under Jin Dynasty patronage until the Jin switched their support to the Tatars in 1161 and destroyed Qutula Khan. Genghis' father, Yesugei, khan of the Borjigin, and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan, emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars, in turn, grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin moved their support from the Tatars to the Kerait. Temüjin had four siblings (three brothers and a sister):

• Khasar (or Qasar) (brother)
• Khajiun (brother)
• Temüge (brother)
• Temülen (or Temulin) (sister)

Genghis Khan's empress was Borte, his childhood friend in whose family's care his father left Temüjin when he was 9; she bore him four sons:

• Jochi (1185–1227) (paternity contested-see above)
• Chagatai (?—1241)
• Ögedei (?—1241)
• Tolui (1190–1232)

All four sons participated in the Mongol's campaigns, and eventually became Khans of different Khanates after Genghis died, but it was Ögedei who was proclaimed the Khagan, the "Khan of Khans", or "Great Khan" and inherited Genghis Khan's mantle. Genghis Khan had many other empresses and concubines. More than 500 women were spread out into four camps. Borte was the leader of the first camp and she was recognized as the high empress. These four camps also served as Genghis Khan's court.

Genghis Khan - Uniting the Central Asian confederations

Their main opponents were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north and the Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin and his advisors had united together the other steppe people. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yasa code, he promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible battle.

Genghis Khan began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother). Genghis's ally was Toghril, Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars (1202) and other various tribes. This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists. Toghrul possibly feared the increasing power and charisma of Temüjin among the Mongol populace and adopted an obstinate attitude towards collaboration. One of the ruptures later between Toghrul and Temüjin was the refusal of Toghrul to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This act probably led to the split and the prelude of the war between both factions. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, Temüjin's blood brother or anda, and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions between Toghrul and Jamuka, as well as the desertion of many clans that fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. This paved the way for the fall and extinction of the Kerait tribe. The next threat that directly competed with Temüjin was the Naimans, with whom Jamuka and his followers had taken refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again did voluntarily side with Temüjin. In 1201, a Khuriltai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including the well-known Subutai, Jelme's younger brother, and Qubilai. After several battles, Jamuka was finally captured in 1206 after several shepherds kidnapped him and turned him over to Temüjin.

Temüjin offered his friendship again to Jamuka and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuka refused the generous offer and asked for a noble death, which was granted to him. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with Naimans were defeated by Subedei, member of the personal guard of Temüjin who would later become one of the greatest commanders in the service of the Khan. The defeat of the Naimans left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains.

Genghis Khan - From Temüjin to Genghis Khan

Temüjin managed to unite the tribes under a single system by 1206, using his personal charisma, and strong will. It was a monumental feat for the Mongols, who had a long history of internecine dispute and economic hardship between each other and by dynasties and empires in China. At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the title Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father. Therefore this unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes and brought them under a single system.

Genghis Khan - Military campaigns

Genghis Khan - First war with Western Xia

Temüjin felt that his southern border was threatened to the south by the Jin Dynasty, who then ruled North China, and to the west by the Xia. Temüjin organized his people and his state to prepare for future battle with the Western Xia that was closer to the Mongol border. Also the Jurchen had grown uncomfortable with the newly-unified Mongols for the first time. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and it is possible that they feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods coming from Silk route. On the other hand Genghis Khan also was eager to take revenge against the Jins for their long periods of subjugation of the Mongols. For example the Jins were known to stir up conflicts between Mongol tribes and even had executed some Mongol Khans. Eventually Genghis Khan led his army against Xi Xia, and conquered Western Xia despite initial difficulties in defeating its well-defended cities. By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord. In 1211, Genghis set about bringing the Nuzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion, in order to prevent them from challenging the Mongols for territory and resources. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng.

Genghis Khan - Conquest of the Khara-Khitan Khanate

Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow"), against Kuchlug. An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country. Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar. He was captured and executed and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis. By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and it adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

Genghis Khan - Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire

After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia, governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia. However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The governor refused later to pay to repayment by the sacking and murder of its members. This and the ambitions of Khwarizm to take control of the commercial routes between the East and the West compelled Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Empire. After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of Khwarzemia to form a pincer attack with the first division on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction. The Shah's army, who were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and the Shah's decision in dividing his army into small groups concentrated in various cities, were decisive factors in Khwarezmia's defeats. The Shah's cowardly attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in destroying Khwarizm. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city he killed many of the inhabitants, and executed Governor Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the insult. In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender, and killed himself when he was cornered. By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated. After Samarkand fell, Bujara became the capital of Jorezm, while two of their generals advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir of Shah Jalal Al-Din and a brilliant strategist who was supported enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again split his forces apart, and Jorezm was forced to flee Bujara after a devastating defeat.

Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.

The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his generals Jebe and Subedei, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.

Genghis Khan - The defeat of the Kieven Rus

While Genghis gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia, a detached force of 20,000 troops commanded by Jebe and Subutai, pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed Georgian crusaders, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Kaffa in Crimea, and stayed the winter near the Black Sea. Heading home, Mongols assaulted the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied troops of Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev, along with about 80,000 Kievan Rus'. Subedei sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, the Mongols defeated the larger Kievan force, capturing and killing six princes, including Mstislav of Kiev. Genghis Khan soon recalled the forces back to the Mongolia afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. This famous cavalry expedition of Subedei and Jebe in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating every single army in their path remains unparalleled to this day.

Genghis Khan - Second war with Western Xia and Jin Dynasty

The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts (1202, 1207, 1209-1210, 1211-1213, 1214-1219 and 1225-1226). The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire. While Genghis was busy with the campaign in Persia against the Khwarezmid Empire, Tangut and Jin formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis prepared for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance. In 1226, Genghis began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory. In 1227, Genghis attacked the Tangut capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, beginning in 1038. Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis executed the emperor and his family. By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death.

Genghis Khan - Mongol Empire

Genghis Khan - Politics and economics

The Mongol Empire was governed by civilian and military code, which is named the Yassa code. An interesting aspect of Mongol Empire was it didn't emphasize the importance of biological and cultural ethnicity and race, exception to Genghis Khan stating that his subsequent Khans be his direct descendents and later some Mongol elites start to exploit the upper seats. Therefore the Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires considering the size with many people inhabiting and considering themselves as Mongols in the civilian life and military with many Turks, Chinese, Mongols, Arabs, Russians, Europeans and others. There were democratic ideals such as meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people in military and civilian life. There were tax exemption for intellectuals like teachers and doctors.

The Mongol Empire linked together previously broken and fractured Silk Road under one system and were open to trade and cultural exchange, although the Mongol conquests led to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia that resisted invasion. In some instances taxes were heavy and conquered people were used as forced labor in those regions. Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women [1]. Also this policy of trade and communication brought about the concept of Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).

Genghis Khan - Military

Genghis Khan made advances in military disciplines, such as mobility, psychological warfare, intelligence, military autonomy, and tactics.

Genghis Khan built a highly efficient army with remarkable discipline, dedication, loyalty and military intelligence. More specificaly the Mongol armies were known for their strict discipline, good weapons and the agility when mounted on their fast and tough horses. Also he refused to divide his troops into different ethnic enclaves, instead creating a sense of unity, and he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups based on the decimal system, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his mounted archers to attack their enemies on several fronts simultaneously. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals and gave them free rein in battles and wars. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command over Mongol forces over Jin while Genghis Khan was fighting in central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to use any means to defeat the Russians.

Another important aspect in the military organization of Genghis Khan is the communications and supply point facet or Yam, to which he himself dedicated a special attention.

Talented military generals and strategists of Genghis, such as Subutai and Jebe, played considerable roles in the practicalities of the war, using hands-on approaches. These generals were purely chosen as part of a meritocracy, as none of them were from the direct family line of Genghis. Genghis did not as a general rule trust his relatives on commanding large number of troops for larger campaigns, and so he did not allow them to command significant numbers of soldiers.

• Jebe - (nickname meaning "the Arrow"), was was one of the four "dogs of war". After surrendering to Temujin, Jebe made several accomplishments, including destroying Kuchlug's Kara-Khitai and defeating the Kievan Rus' in several battles, expanding the Mongol Empire considerably.

• Subutai - He was one of the four "dogs of war". One of the most prominent generals from the others, a brilliant strategist and good friend of Genghis Khan and his sons, he accompanied Jebe in his battles against Kara-Khitai and the Kievan Rus' and in the conquest of eastern and central Europe after Genghis Khan with his grandson Batu Khan.

• Muqali - Joined before the defeat of Jamuqa. One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan. Made the general of left-wing tumen. During Genghis Khan's conquest of Khwarezmid Empire, Muqali was the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.

• Borchu - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borchu joined as one of the earliest generals of Genghis Khan. He was made the general of right-wing tumen and was revered as a tough commander with great leadership skills.

• Borokhul - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borokhul defected from Jamuqa.

• Chilaun - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Chilaun's family helped Temujin when he was captured by the Tai'chuids.

• Qubilai - He was one of the four "dogs of war".

• Jelme - Another early general of Genghis Khan. He was one of the four "dogs of war" and was the commander of the personal guard of Genghis Khan.

Genghis Khan - Destruction and effects after conquests

There are many interpretations for the amount of destruction Genghis Khan and his armies caused. The ones that suffered more in the hands of Genghis Khan's conquest like the Persians and Chinese tend to overplay the negatives and therefore their historians possibly exaggerate the numbers. Therefore one should be skeptical when judging the destructions caused by Genghis Khan and his army.

Genghis Khan - Civilians

Genghis Khan generally preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight, but was merciless if he encountered any resistance. In such cases he would not give an alternative and would mercilessly attack the population of the resisting cities, leaving skilled engineers, artists, spies and submitted troops as the Mongol populace and unify the troops to Mongol military by expanding their manpower, while absorbing their technology and skill as needed. There also were instances of mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China where the vast majority of the population had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers, accounting for the increased hostility between Genghis Khan's unified Mongols and Western Xia at the time. Genghis' conquests were widely characterized by wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale and radical changes in the demographics of Asia by many ancient sources. For example, over much of Central Asia Indo-European Persian-speakers were replaced by Turkic speakers. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population during 13th and 14th century. For instance, before the Mongol invasion, China had 80 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Genghis Khan and his forces is unclear as are the highly generalized numbers themselves.

Genghis Khan - Property and cultural treasures

His campaigns in Northern China, Central Asia and the Middle East caused massive property destructions for those that resisted his invasion, however there is no exact historical factual numbers available at this time. For example, the cities of Ray and Tus, the two largest and most populous cities in Iran at the time, both centers of literature, culture, trade and commerce, were completely destroyed by order of Genghis. Nishapur, Merv and Samarkand suffered similar havoc.

Genghis Khan - Division of Mongol Empire into Khanates

Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and grandsons into several Khanates. These Khanates were sub territories and the Khans of these Khanates were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was Ögedei Khan.

Following are the Khanates in the way in which Genghis Khan assigned after his death:

• Empire of the Great Khan (China) - Great Khan Ogedei Khan
• Il-Khanate - Hulegu Khan
• Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Kharakhorum) - Tolui Khan
• Chagadai Khanate - Chagatai Khan
• Blue Horde and White Horde (combined into the Golden Horde) - Batu Khan and Orda Khan

Genghis Khan - Death and burial

In his last campaign with the Tangut Empire during which Genghis Khan was in battle with Khwarezmid Empire, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a hidden knife and that he never recovered.

It is alleged that Genghis asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. In October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and that may make it possible to find his burial site. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (The same manner of burial of Sumerian folk hero Gilgamesh.) Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted. The burial site remains undiscovered.

Genghis left behind an army of more than 129,000 men. 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. This was done because by tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Four of his sons, beside Tolui, received armies of 4000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each.

Genghis Khan - His personality

It is not entirely clear what Genghis Khan's personality was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's nomadic way of life, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa teachings, and to refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure.

He seem to value honesty and loyalty highly from his subjects, and enemy soldiers' loyalty to their leader. Genghis Khan put a lot of trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subudei. Genghis gave his generals free rein in battles and allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaign on their own very far away from the Mongol Empire capital Kharakhorum.

His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals. He seemed to be a quick study, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered. He was physically courageous and well built individual and many stories and legends claim that Genghis always was in the front in battles.

The chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani left a description of Genghis Khan, written when the Khan was in his later years:

[Genghis Khan was] a man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust in body, the hair on his face scanty and turned white, with cat's eyes, possessed of dedicated energy, discernment, genius, and understanding, awe-striking, a butcher, just, resolute, an overthrower of enemies, intrepid, sanguinary, and cruel.

Genghis Khan - Legacy

Genghis Khan - In most of the world

Historians and scientists are looking into positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests. Genghis Khan, successor Khans and Mongols are credited to bringing the Silk Route back in full use and under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia by expanding the horizon of all three areas. Genghis Khan is widely becoming known for his advocacy of religious tolerance among his populace and also his institution of meritocracy in his rule. One of the most important aspect of his rule especially among Mongolians is the Mongolian culture, their heritage and the nation of Mongolia that he helped shaped. Mongols and independent confederations were feuding with each other for centuries and he stopped this previous bloodshed and gave economically and politically viable environment among his populace.

The Chinese to this day have mixed feelings towards Genghis: although his successors completely conquered China, there still is much artwork and literature praising him as a "great military" leader. Genghis Khan is ranked #29 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential people in history. There were some that later claimed descended from Genghis Khan like Timur and therefore Babur that were successful conquerers in their own right.

Genghis Khan - In Mongolia

Genghis Khan is presently considered a brilliant and spiritual (military) leader in Mongolia, credited for paving the way for the nation of Mongolia. There is much concern about the negative bias and exaggeration in historical records about him, which emphasize his assaults, barbarism, and butchery while underplaying his positives. There is a feeling that his military and administrative genius is undervalued, as is his undisputed status as the conqueror of one of the largest empires in history as in many countries like to pride themselves with Napoleon and Alexander, same is the case with Mongolia.

In the early 1990s, when Mongolia separated from communism and the Russian bloc, Genghis became a symbol of the free nation's identity. It is not really uncommon to hear in Mongolia the phrase, "Genghis Khan's Mongolia."

Genghis Khan - Name and title

There are many theories for the origins of Genghis' title; this uncertainty is fueled by the fact that later members of the Mongol Empire associated the name with the Mongol word for strength, "ching", though this does not fit the etymology. One theory about the etymology suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkish word tenggiz, meaning "ocean," "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggiz by the Mongols. However it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggiz they could have said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which then was modified by later scribes in India or Persia to "Genghis". It is likely that contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like "Chinggis". Chingis Khan is the spelling used by the modern Republic of Mongolia. See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further reading.

The name "Temujin" is believed to derive from the Mongolian word temur, meaning iron. This name would imply skill as a blacksmith, and like any nomad of the time he was familiar, at least partially, with the working of iron and steel for horse-shoeing and weaponry. More likely, as there exists no evidence that has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family known for blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temulin and Temuge, which are derived from the same root word. According to legend, Temujin was named after one of the more powerful chiefs of a rival tribe which his father, Yesükhei, had recently defeated.

Genghis Khan - Short timeline

• c. 1155-1167 - Temujin born in Hentiy, Mongolia.
• c. 1171 - Temujin's father Yesükhei poisoned by the Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute
• c. 1184 - Temujin's wife Borte kidnapped by Merkits; calls on blood brother Jamuka and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.
• c. 1185 - First son Jochi born, leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born soon after Borte's rescue from the Merkits.
• 1190' - Temujin unites the Mongol tribes, becomes leader, and devises code of law Yassa.
• 1201 - Wins victory over Jamuka's Jadarans.
• 1202 - Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.
• 1203 - Wins victory over Wang Khan's Keraits.
• 1204 - Wins victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).
• 1206 - Temujin given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
• 1207-1210 - Genghis leads operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submits to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uighurs also submit peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
• 1211 - After Khuriltai, Genghis leads his armies against the Jin Dynasty that ruled northern China.
• 1219-1222 - Conquers Khwarezmid Empire under provocation.
• 1226 - Starts the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, being the second battle with the Western Xia.
• 1227 - Genghis Khan dies leading fight against (how he died is uncertain) Western Xia.

Genghis Khan - Notes

Note 1: Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The Yuanshi (元史, "History of the Yuan dynasty", not to be confused with the era name of the Han dynasty), records his year of birth as 1162. However, the Record of Successive Generations of Buddha (Lidai Fozu Tongzai) records the Genghis Khan died at the age of 60. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father only at the age of 30, and would imply that at the ripe age of 72 he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts. Also, according to the Altan Tobci, Genghis Khan's sister, Temulin, was nine years younger than he; but the Secret History relates that Temulin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not and had never known their ages.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Genghis Khan", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki