Fungus: Encyclopedia II - Fungus - Overview

Fungus - Overview

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Some fungi are major decomposers of dead plant and animal matter in forests and many other environments. Some types of fungi are parasites on plants and animals, including humans. They are responsible for numerous diseases, such as athlete’s foot and ringworm in humans and Dutch elm disease in plants. Other fungi are partners in symbiotic relationships with other organisms. For example, lichens are formed by a symbiotic relationship between algae or cyanobacteria and fungi. Most vascular plants benefit from a symbiosis between their roots and fungi.

Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types of mushrooms and other fungi are eaten, including button mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, and oyster mushrooms. Of course, many species of mushrooms are poisonous and are responsible for a numerous cases of sickness and death every year. A type of fungus called yeast is used in baking bread and fermenting alcoholic beverages. Fungi are also used to produce industrial chemicals like lactic acid, and even to make stonewashed jeans. Some types of fungi are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and religiously (as entheogens) (see main article, Psychedelic mushroom).

Fungus - Types of Fungi

The major groups of fungi are mainly classified based on their sexual reproductive structures. Currently, five Divisions are recognized by mycologists (scientists who study fungi):

• The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi produce zoospores that are capable of moving on their own through liquid mesnstrua by simple flagella.
• The Zygomycota are known as zygomycetes and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores. Black bread mold (Rhizopus) is a common species that belongs to this group, another is Pilobolus, which shoots specialized structures through the air for severa meters and was the source of the name for the modern dance troupe.
• Members of the Glomeromycota are also known as the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually. This is an ancient association with evidence dating to 350 mybp.
• The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, meiotic spores are called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This division includes morels, mushrooms and truffles, as well as single-celled yeasts and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g. Neurospora crassa).
• Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fingi, which are major pathogens of grains.

Although the water molds and slime molds have traditionally been placed in kingdom Fungi and are still studied by mycologists, they are not true fungi. Unlike true fungi, the water molds and slime molds do not have cell walls made of chitin. In the somewhat passé 5 kindom system, they are currently placed in kingdom Protista.

Fungus - Structure

Fungi may be single-celled or multicellular. Multicellular fungi are composed networks of long hollow tubes called hyphae. The hyphae often aggregate in a dense network known as mycelium. The mycelium grows through the substrate on which the fungus feeds. Because fungi are imbedded in the medium in which they grow, they are often not visible to the naked eye.

Although fungi lack true organs, the mycelia of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes may become organized into more complex reproductive structures called fruiting bodies, or sporocarps, when conditions are right. "Mushroom" is the common name given to the above-ground fruiting bodies of many fungal species. Although these above-ground structures are the most conspicuous to humans, they make up only a small portion of the entire fungal body.

The largest organism in the world is purported to be a single Armillaria ostoyae individual growing in a forest in eastern Oregon, USA. The underground mycelial network may cover as much as 890 ha (2200 acres).

Fungus - Reproduction

Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually. In asexual reproduction, the offspring are genetically identical to the “parent” organism. During sexual reproduction, a mixing of genetic material occurs so that the offspring exhibit traits of both parents. Many species can use both strategies at different times, while others are apparently strictly sexual or strictly asexual. Sexual reproduction has not been observed in the Glomeromycota or in ascomycetes. Glomeromycota are commonly referred to as Fungi imperfecti or Deuteromycota.

Yeasts and other unicellular fungi can reproduce simply by budding, or “pinching off” a new cell. Many multicellular species produce a variety of different asexual spores that are easily dispersed and resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions are right, these spores will germinate and colonize new habitats.

Sexual reproduction in fungi is somewhat different from that of animals or plants, and each fungal division reproduces using different strategies. Fungi that are known to reproduce sexually all have a haploid stage and a diploid stage in their life cycles. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes also go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited by the two parents do not fuse right away, but remain separate in the hyphal cells.

In zygomycetes, the haploid hyphae of two compatible individuals fuse, forming a zygote, which becomes a resistant zygospore. When this zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae and asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores may then be distributed and germinate into new genetically-identical individuals, each producing their own haploid hyphae. When the hyphae of two compatible individuals come into contact with one another, they will fuse and generate new zygospores, thus completing the cycle.

In ascomycetes, when compatible haploid hyphae fuse with one another, their nuclei do not immediately fuse. The dikaryotic hyphae form structures called asci (sing. ascus), in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. These asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body, of the fungus. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate to form new haploid mycelium. Asexual conidia may be produced by the haploid mycelium. Many ascomycetes appear to have lost the ability to reproduce sexually and only reproduce via conidia.

Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of ascomycetes. Sexually compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. This leads to the production of a basidiocarp. The most commonly-known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms. Club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores following karyogamy and meiosis. These basidiospores then germinate to produce new haploid mycelia.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Overview", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki