Emotional intelligence: Encyclopedia - Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence

Emotional Intelligence, also called EI or EQ, describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. However, being a relatively new area, the definition of emotional intelligence is still in a state of flux. Some, such as Mayer (2005a) prefer to distinguish emotional knowledge from emotional intelligence, as discussed below.

In 1920, E. L. Thorndike, at Columbia University, (Thorndike 1920), used the term "social intelligence" to describe the skill of getting along with other people. In 1975, Howard Gardner's The Shattered Mind, (Gardner 1975) began the formulation of the idea for "Multiple Intelligences" (he identifies seven intelligences), including both interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence. Many psychologists, such as Gardner, believe that traditional measures of intelligence, such as the IQ test, fail to fully explain cognitive ability. (Smith 2002)

The term "emotional intelligence" appears to have originated with Wayne Payne (1985), but was popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995). The leading research on the concept originated with Peter Salovey and John "Jack" Mayer starting in the late 1980s. In 1990, their seminal paper (1990) defined the concept as an intelligence. Mayer and Salovey continue to research the concept, and created and emotional intelligence test called the MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test). The term "emotional quotient" seems to have originated in an article by Keith Beasley (1987). Bar-on (1997) developed a test measuring emotional quotient, called the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi). There are numerous other assessments of emotional intelligence each advocating different models and measures.

Emotional intelligence - Defining emotional intelligence

The distinction between intelligence and knowledge in the area of cognition (i.e. IQ) is very clear, where generally, psychological research demonstrates that IQ is a reliable measure of cognitive capacity, and is stable over time. In the area of emotion (i.e. EQ) that distinction between intelligence and knowledge is murky. Current definitions of EQ are inconsistent about what it measures: some (such as Bradberry and Greaves 2005) say that EQ is dynamic, it can be learned or increased; whereas others (such as Mayers) say that EQ is stable, and cannot be increased. Mayer's (2005a) is consistent with cognition-based definitions of intelligence and knowledge, stating that emotional "intelligence is unlikely to be any more easily raised than general intelligence," but "emotional knowledge can be increased. . . fairly easily." Under Mayer's definition, emotional knowledge would be the level of perception and assessment that an individual has of their emotions at any given moment in time.

Emotional intelligence - Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence - Mayer and Salovey and emotional intelligence

In the early 1990s, John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey published a series of papers on emotional intelligence. (Salovey and Mayer 1990) (Mayer and Salovey 1993) They suggested that the capacity to perceive and understand emotions define a new variable in personality. The Mayer-Salovey model defines emotional intelligence as the capacity to understand emotional information and to reason with emotions. More specifically, they divide emotional intelligence abilities into four areas -- in their four branch model:

1. The capacity to accurately perceive emotions.
2. The capacity to use emotions to facilitate thinking.
3. The capacity to understand emotional meanings.
4. The capacity to manage emotions.

These four abilities are assessed by criterion-based (or abilities-based) tests (the researchers have introduced several versions, the latest of which is the MSCEIT V2.0).

Emotional intelligence - Goleman and emotional intelligence

Daniel Goleman popularized his view of emotional intelligence in the 1995 best-selling book: Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. (Goleman 1995) Goleman generalized the Mayer/Salovey research and adapted it to a general public audience. In doing so, he altered the meaning of the term and added claims that the original theory never made. Goleman drew together research in neurophysiology, psychology and cognitive science. Much of his book is based on Mayer and Salovey's original 1990 article. However, he modified (Mayer 2005b), emotional intelligence, as conceived by Mayer and Salovey, with other observations based on other scientific findings, including:

• A part of the human brain called the amygdala or reptilian brain (because it has similar functions to those of reptiles) does most of the processing of human emotional responses. These responses mostly occur automatically, as in the case of the familiar flight-or-attack response triggered by threatening situations. Humans have evolved in such a way that a "neural-hijacking" takes place that provides a quick answer to life's critical situations.
• In humans, the reptilian brain has links with the neocortex, which can accordingly exert some control over the largely automatic responses of the reptilian brain.
• The amount of control has a genetic component; yet one can learn to control emotions to a certain degree. Most people do learn this at some point. Further, it is possible to hone the skill, achieving greater abilities to manage emotions. Therefore, Goleman believes that emotional intelligence is learnable.
• Goleman points out there is not a strong correlation between the Intelligence quotient (IQ) and success in life. While popular opinion is that IQ predicts success, there is little conclusive evidence. There is research showing IQ is linked to completion of high school, attainment of higher education, avoidance of dependence on welfare, avoidance of criminal conviction, there is not proof that IQ predicts these outcomes. In 1995 Goleman asserted that EQ is the missing link; in the last 10 years researchers have found that emotional intelligence is an important predictor of grades, promotions, health, and relationship quality.

Goleman's popularized definition of emotional intelligence at first displaced the more careful scientific definition of Mayer and Salovey in the public imagination. However, recent interests have turned back, in part, toward Mayer and Salovey's definition, providing a compelling case for their conception. Nevertheless, Goleman brought attention to the fact that emotions play a crucial role in everyday life, and that so-called "normal" people can enhance their emotional competency. Many other books on emotional intelligence have appeared in the train of Goleman's work.

Goleman divides emotional intelligence into the following five emotional competencies:

1. The ability to identify and name one's emotional states and to understand the link between emotions, thought and action.
2. The capacity to manage one's emotional states — to control emotions or to shift undesirable emotional states to more adequate ones.
3. The ability to enter into emotional states (at will) associated with a drive to achieve and be successful.
4. The capacity to read, be sensitive, and influence other people's emotions.
5. The ability to enter and sustain satisfactory interpersonal relationships.

In Goleman's view, these emotional competencies build on each other in a hierarchy. At the bottom of his hierarchy "1" is the ability to identity one's emotional state. Some knowledge with "competency 1" is needed to move to the next competency. Likewise, knowledge and/or skill in the first three competencies, is needed to achieve successful relationships with others ("competency 4"), to read and influence positively other people's emotions. The first four competencies lead to increased ability to enter and sustain good relationships ("competency 5").

Goleman observes that emotions always exist — we always feel something. Organizations of all kinds often prize "being rational", whereas they do not esteem "being emotional." But even in the most "rational" of decisions, emotions persist: how else do we decide which criteria to use for evaluating the options in making a decision? — pace experience and statistical probabilities. Emotions also play a role in making a final decision between equally good choices — pace random chance. Goleman also laments gender role idiosyncrasies: Western society usually sees it as acceptable for women to show their emotions, but not for men.

Emotional intelligence - Emotional quotient measures

According to Mayer (2005c) there are two ways to measure emotional intelligence: criterion-based tests, and self-reported tests.

Emotional intelligence - Criterion-based test measures

Currently the MSCEIT criterion-based test measures emotional intelligence in these areas:

• Experiential Area
  1. Perceiving Emotions Branch
  2. Facilitating Thinking Branch
• Strategic Area
  1. Understanding Emotional Meaning Branch
  2. Managing Emotions Branch

For more on this topic see psychological testing and evaluation. A discussion on the strengths of criterion-based measures versus self-reported measures was written by (Ciarroch and Mayer 2005).

Emotional intelligence - Self-reported test measures

Bradberry and Greaves (2005c), based on the work of Goleman, give the following four areas as significant for measuring emotional knowledge. Their test is a self-administered, self-judgement assessment.

• Personal competence, including:
  • Self-awareness: Only when somebody is aware of their strengths and weaknesses can they maximise their potential.
  • Self-regulation: In a constantly changing business world, the ability to control your emotions is paramount. Panic and anger are understandable, but rarely produce good working relationships.
• Social competence, including:
  • Social awareness: First impressions are very powerful and can be difficult to change. The first handshake or greeting and initial facial expressions form the basis of our opinion, and begin to develop the reputation we have within an organisation.
  • Empathy: The successful manager is the one who convinces people that they are important, and is aware of the changing moods and emotions of their people.

Emotional intelligence - Nancy Gibbs on emotional intelligence

In October of 1995, Nancy Gibbs (1995) wrote an article on emotional intelligence that appeared in Time Magazine, wherein she mentioned Goleman's book, adding to the book's popularity, but misrepresented Mayer and Salovey's view. In the misquotation, "Their [Mayer and Salovey's] notion is about to bound into the national conversation, handily shortened to EQ, thanks to a new book, Emotional Intelligence (Bantam) by Daniel Goleman. . . ", Nancy Gibbs made it look like Goleman's book accurately reflected Mayer and Salovey's concept of emotional intelligence without even mentioning the main differences.

John Mayer criticized Gibb's article on his Web site (Mayer 2005c) at the University of New Hampshire. Among other things, he criticized the subtitle on the issue's cover ("It's not your IQ. Its not even a number. But emotional intelligence may be the best predictor of success in life, redefining what it means to be smart."), because the subtitle makes the reader think that emotional intelligence is not measurable and that emotional intelligence correlates with "success in life." Mayer and Salovey's view, to the contrary, states that EI is measurable, even with a psychometric test such as the MSCEIT, and makes no claim about EIs predictability for success in life.

Emotional intelligence - Criticism

A significant criticism is that emotional intelligence has no "benchmark" to set itself against. While IQ tests are designed to correlate as closely as possible with school grades, emotional intelligence seems to have no similar objective quantity it can be based on.

The criticism of the works of Mayer and Salovey include a study by Roberts et.al. (2001). That research warns that EQ may actually be measuring conformity. However, Mayer et.al. (2001), provide further theoretical basis for their theories. Nevertheless, many psychological researchers do not accept emotional intelligence to be a part of "standard" intelligence (like IQ).

Goleman's work is also criticized in the psychological community. Eysenck ((2000)), for example comments that Goleman "exemplifies more clearly than most the fundamental absurdity of the tendency to class almost any type of behaviour as an 'intelligence'. . . ."If these five 'abilities' define 'emotional intelligence', we would expect some evidence that they are highly correlated; Goleman admits that they might be quite uncorrelated, and in any case if we cannot measure them, how do we know they are related? So the whole theory is built on quicksand; there is no sound scientific basis.

See also

• Emotion work
• List of emotions, Empathy
• Theory of multiple intelligences
• Motivation

Adapted from the Wikipedia article "Emotional intelligence", under the G.N U Free Docmentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki