Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lay dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 81 years. The reasons for this are varied and complex. During the first half of the European Middle Ages, the balance of power between the West and the Muslim World was tilted heavily in the latter's favor. Within 150 years of Muhammad's death, the Islamic Caliphate had grown to swallow fully half of the Christian world, which had been mired in internal conflict and was caught off-guard by the Islam ...

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Caliph, Caliph - Origins of the caliphate, Caliph - Succession to Muhammad, Caliph - The authority of the caliph, Caliph - The history of the caliphate, Caliph - How the Caliphate came to an end, Caliph - Reasons for the fall and continuing dormancy of the Caliphate, Caliph - Famous caliphs, Caliph - Dynasties, Caliph - Claims to the caliphate, Caliph - Lists of Caliphal dynasties and seats, Caliph - The Rashidun Righteously Guided, Caliph - The Umayyads of Damascus, Caliph - The Abbasids of Baghdad, Caliph - The Abbasid branch of Cairo, Caliph - The Ottoman Padishahs, Caliph - The secular Republic of Turkey, Caliph - The Sharifan house in now Saudi Arabia, Caliph - Sources and references

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The more important dynasties include: The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661-750), followed by: The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750-1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluk control) (1260-1517) The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909-1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the following list. The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established 'in exile' as Emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; ...

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Caliph, Caliph - Origins of the caliphate, Caliph - Succession to Muhammad, Caliph - The authority of the caliph, Caliph - The history of the caliphate, Caliph - How the Caliphate came to an end, Caliph - Reasons for the fall and continuing dormancy of the Caliphate, Caliph - Famous caliphs, Caliph - Dynasties, Caliph - Claims to the caliphate, Caliph - Lists of Caliphal dynasties and seats, Caliph - The Rashidun Righteously Guided, Caliph - The Umayyads of Damascus, Caliph - The Abbasids of Baghdad, Caliph - The Abbasid branch of Cairo, Caliph - The Ottoman Padishahs, Caliph - The secular Republic of Turkey, Caliph - The Sharifan house in now Saudi Arabia, Caliph - Sources and references

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List of Turkic states and empires - Autonomous Turkic republics in the Russian Federation. Altai Republic Bashkortostan Chuvashia Khakassia Tatarstan Tuva List of Turkic states and empires - Other Autonomous Turkic regions. Gagauzia, in Moldova East Turkestan (officially Xinjiang), in People's Republic of China ...

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List of Turkic states and empires, List of Turkic states and empires - Historical kingdoms and empires, List of Turkic states and empires - Turkic-Mongolian States, List of Turkic states and empires - Turkic States in Eastern Europe, List of Turkic states and empires - Modern Turkic Countries, List of Turkic states and empires - Autonomous Turkic republics in the Russian Federation, List of Turkic states and empires - Other Autonomous Turkic regions

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Lombards - Lething Dynasty. Tato (???) Lombards - Another Dynasty. Wacho (died 539) Waltari (539 - 546) Lombards - Gausian Dynasty. Audoin (546 - 565) Alboin (565 - 572) Cleph (572 - 574) Rule of the Dukes (Ten year inte ...

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Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - So-called 'Bavarian Dynasty'

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Much of our knowledge of the mythological and semi-mythological early history of the Lombard people comes from Paul the Deacon's History of the Lombards (Historia Langobardorum) written in the late 8th century, indebted to the 7th century Origo Gentis Langobardorum. According to the Lombards themselves, a legend documented by Paul the Deacon, their name was derived from a joke played on Odin (Godan) by his wife Frige (Frea). She told the Lombard women to tie their hair in front of their faces and when Odin saw the ...

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Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - So-called 'Bavarian Dynasty'

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Makuria is by far the best-known kingdom of Christian Nubia, but there are still many gaps in our knowledge. The most important source for the history of the area is various Arab travelers and historians who passed through Nubia during this period. The accounts are often problematic as many of the Arab writers were biased against their Christian neighbours, and these works generally focus on only the military conflicts between Egypt and Nubia.[2] One except ...

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Makuria, Makuria - Sources, Makuria - History, Makuria - Origins, Makuria - Height, Makuria - Decline, Makuria - Economy, Makuria - Government, Makuria - Religion, Makuria - Culture, Makuria - Rulers, Makuria - Notes

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The main economic activity in Makuria was agriculture, with farmers growing several crops a year of barley, millet, and dates. The methods used were generally the same that had been used for millennia. Small plots of well irrigated land were lined along the banks of the Nile, which would be fertilized by the river's annual flooding. One important technological advance was the saqiya, an oxen-powered water wheel, that was introduced in the Roman period and helped increase yields and population density.^{See also:}

Makuria, Makuria - Sources, Makuria - History, Makuria - Origins, Makuria - Height, Makuria - Decline, Makuria - Economy, Makuria - Government, Makuria - Religion, Makuria - Culture, Makuria - Rulers, Makuria - Notes

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One of the most debated issues among scholars is over the religion of Makuria. Up to the fifth century the old faith of Meroe seems to have remained strong, even while its counterpart in Egypt disappeared. In the fifth century the Nubians went so far as to launch an invasion of Egypt, during which the Christians tried to turn some of the main temples into churches.[24] Archaeological evidence in this period finds a number of Christian ornaments in Nubia ...

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Makuria, Makuria - Sources, Makuria - History, Makuria - Origins, Makuria - Height, Makuria - Decline, Makuria - Economy, Makuria - Government, Makuria - Religion, Makuria - Culture, Makuria - Rulers, Makuria - Notes

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Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king was also considered a priest and could perform mass. [18] How succession was decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son. After the eleventh century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was using the uncle-to-sister's-son system favoured for millennia in Kush. Shinnie speculates that the later form may have actually been used throughout, and that the early Arab wri ...

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Makuria, Makuria - Sources, Makuria - History, Makuria - Origins, Makuria - Height, Makuria - Decline, Makuria - Economy, Makuria - Government, Makuria - Religion, Makuria - Culture, Makuria - Rulers, Makuria - Notes

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There have been a number of notable translations of Du Fu’s work into English. The translators have each had to contend with the same problems of bringing out the formal constraints of the original without sounding laboured to the western ear (particularly when translating lǜshi), and of dealing with the allusions contained particularly in the later works (Hawkes writes that "his poems do not as a rule come through very well in translation" — p. ix). One extreme on each issue is represented by Kenneth Rexroth’s One Hundred P ...

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Du Fu, Du Fu - Life, Du Fu - Early years, Du Fu - War, Du Fu - Chengdu, Du Fu - Last years, Du Fu - Works, Du Fu - History, Du Fu - Moral engagement, Du Fu - Technical excellence, Du Fu - Influence, Du Fu - Translation

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In his lifetime, and immediately following his death, Du Fu was not greatly appreciated. In part this can be attributed to his stylistic and formal innovations, some of which are still "considered extremely daring and bizarre by Chinese critics" (Hawkes, p. 4). However, as Hung notes, he "is the only Chinese poet whose influence grew with time" (p. 1), and in the ninth century he began to increase in popularity. With time, his innovations began to seem less radical, and hindsight could appreciate the historical aspects of his poems better th ...

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Du Fu, Du Fu - Life, Du Fu - Early years, Du Fu - War, Du Fu - Chengdu, Du Fu - Last years, Du Fu - Works, Du Fu - History, Du Fu - Moral engagement, Du Fu - Technical excellence, Du Fu - Influence, Du Fu - Translation

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Little is known of the rulers of Colchis; Aeetes celebrated in Greek legends as a powerful king of Colchis is thought by some historians to be a historic person, though there is no evidence to support the idea. Kuji, a presiding prince (eristavi) of Egrisi under the authority of Pharnavaz I of Iberia (ca302-237 BC) (according to the medieval Georgian annals). Akes (Basileus Aku) (end of the 4th century BC), king of Colchis; his name is found on a coin issued by him. See also:

Colchis, Colchis - Geography and toponyms, Colchis - History, Colchis - Earliest times, Colchis - Qulha Kolkha, Colchis - Greek colonization, Colchis - Under Pontus, Colchis - Under the Roman rule, Colchis - Rulers, Colchis - Colchis in Greek mythology

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According to most classic authors, a district which was bounded on the southwest by Pontus, on the west by the Pontus Euxinus as far as the river Corax (probably the present day Bziphi, Abkhazia), on the north by the chain of the Greater Caucasus, which lay between it and Asiatic Sarmatia, on the east by Iberia and Montes Moschici (now the Lesser Caucasus), and on the south by Armenia. There is some little difference in authors as to the extent of the country westward: thus Strabo makes Colchis begin at Trapezus, while Ptolemy, on the other hand, extends Pontus to the river Phasis. ...

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Colchis, Colchis - Geography and toponyms, Colchis - History, Colchis - Earliest times, Colchis - Qulha Kolkha, Colchis - Greek colonization, Colchis - Under Pontus, Colchis - Under the Roman rule, Colchis - Rulers, Colchis - Colchis in Greek mythology

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Years according to the Christian era (all AD) Caliph - The Rashidun Righteously Guided. Accepted by Sunni Muslims and international consensus as the first four rulers; Shi'a Muslims believe that the first three were usurpers. Abu Bakr - 632 - 634 Umar ibn al-Khattab - 634 - 644 Uthman ibn Affan - 644 - 656 Ali ibn Abi Talib - 656 - 661 (the only caliph universally accepted by Sunnis and Shi'as) Caliph - The Umayyads of Damascus. Muawi ...

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Caliph, Caliph - Origins of the caliphate, Caliph - Succession to Muhammad, Caliph - The authority of the caliph, Caliph - The history of the caliphate, Caliph - How the Caliphate came to an end, Caliph - Reasons for the fall and continuing dormancy of the Caliphate, Caliph - Famous caliphs, Caliph - Dynasties, Caliph - Claims to the caliphate, Caliph - Lists of Caliphal dynasties and seats, Caliph - The Rashidun Righteously Guided, Caliph - The Umayyads of Damascus, Caliph - The Abbasids of Baghdad, Caliph - The Abbasid branch of Cairo, Caliph - The Ottoman Padishahs, Caliph - The secular Republic of Turkey, Caliph - The Sharifan house in now Saudi Arabia, Caliph - Sources and references

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According to the Greek mythology, Colchis was a fabulously wealthy land situated on the mysterious periphery of the heroic world. Here in the sacred grove of the war god Ares, King Aeetes hung the Golden Fleece until it was seized by Jason and the Argonauts. Colchis was also the land where the mythological Prometheus was punished by being chained to a mountain while an eagle ate at his liver for revealing to humanity the secret of fire. Amazons also were said to be of Scythian origin from Colchis. The main mythical characters from Colchis are Aeetes, ...

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Colchis, Colchis - Geography and toponyms, Colchis - History, Colchis - Earliest times, Colchis - Qulha Kolkha, Colchis - Greek colonization, Colchis - Under Pontus, Colchis - Under the Roman rule, Colchis - Rulers, Colchis - Colchis in Greek mythology

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Damascus lies about 80 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea, sheltered by the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. It lies on a plateau 680 meters above sea-level. Damascus is located at 33°30' North, 36°18' East (33.5, 36.3). [2] The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river Barada. To the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These districts originally ...

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Damascus, Damascus - Name, Damascus - Geography, Damascus - History, Damascus - Ancient, Damascus - Greco-Roman, Damascus - From the Muslim conquest to the Fatimids, Damascus - Fatimids the Crusades and the Seljuks, Damascus - Mamluk rule, Damascus - Timurlank, Damascus - The Ottoman conquest, Damascus - Rise of Arab nationalism, Damascus - Modern, Damascus - Historical sites, Damascus - The walls and gates of Damascus, Damascus - Born in Damascus, Damascus - Further References

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Criticism of Du Fu's works has focused on his strong sense of history, his moral engagement, and his technical excellence. Du Fu - History. Since the Song dynasty Du Fu has been called by critics the "poet historian". The most directly historical of his poems are those commenting on military tactics or the successes and failures of the government, or the poems of advice which he wrote to the emperor. Indirectly, he wrote about the effect of the times in which he lived on himself, and on the ordinary people of China. As Watson notes, this is information "of a kind seldom found in the officially compiled h ...

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Du Fu, Du Fu - Life, Du Fu - Early years, Du Fu - War, Du Fu - Chengdu, Du Fu - Last years, Du Fu - Works, Du Fu - History, Du Fu - Moral engagement, Du Fu - Technical excellence, Du Fu - Influence, Du Fu - Translation

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Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history. Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City. The street called straight (referred to in the conversion of St. Paul in Acts 9:11), also known as the Via Recta, was one of the main streets of Roman Damascus, and extended ...

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Damascus, Damascus - Name, Damascus - Geography, Damascus - History, Damascus - Ancient, Damascus - Greco-Roman, Damascus - From the Muslim conquest to the Fatimids, Damascus - Fatimids the Crusades and the Seljuks, Damascus - Mamluk rule, Damascus - Timurlank, Damascus - The Ottoman conquest, Damascus - Rise of Arab nationalism, Damascus - Modern, Damascus - Historical sites, Damascus - The walls and gates of Damascus, Damascus - Born in Damascus, Damascus - Further References

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Christian Nubia was long considered something of a backwater, mainly because its graves were small and lacking the grave goods of previous eras.[31] Modern scholars realize that this was due to cultural reasons, and that the Makurians actually had a rich and vibrant art and culture. One of the most important discoveries of the rushed work prior to the flooding of Lower Nubia was the Cathedral of Faras. This large building had been completely fille ...

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Makuria, Makuria - Sources, Makuria - History, Makuria - Origins, Makuria - Height, Makuria - Decline, Makuria - Economy, Makuria - Government, Makuria - Religion, Makuria - Culture, Makuria - Rulers, Makuria - Notes

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