Traditionally, Chinese literary criticism has placed great emphasis on knowledge of the life of the author when interpreting a work, a practice which Watson attributes to "the close links that traditional Chinese thought posits between art and morality" (p. xvii). This becomes all the more important in the case of a writer such as Du Fu, in whose poems morality and history are so prominent. Another reason, identified by the Chinese historian William Hung, is that Chinese poems are typically extremely concise, omitting circumstantial factors ...

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Du Fu, Du Fu - Life, Du Fu - Early years, Du Fu - War, Du Fu - Chengdu, Du Fu - Last years, Du Fu - Works, Du Fu - History, Du Fu - Moral engagement, Du Fu - Technical excellence, Du Fu - Influence, Du Fu - Translation

Read more here: » Du Fu: Encyclopedia II - Du Fu - Life

Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy. Their own traditions (preserved in the Origo Gentis Langobardorum) describe how they were formerly called Winili, and how they left Scandinavia under the leaders Ybor and Agio, and settled in Continental Europe, in the lower course of the Elbe river, where they were recorded by Tacitus as early as A.D. 98: What, on the contrary, ennobles the Langobards is the smallness of their number, for that they, who are surrounded with very many and very ...

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Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - So-called 'Bavarian Dynasty'

Read more here: » Lombards: Encyclopedia II - Lombards - History

Rulers of Damascus - Ummayad emirs. Khalid ibn al-Walid (635-636) Abu Ubaid (636-637) Amr ibn al-Aas (637-640) Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan (640) Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan (640-661) Rulers of Damascus - Ummayad dynasty ruling in Damascus. Muawiyah I ibn Abu Sufyan (661-680) Yazid I ibn Muawiyah (680-683) Muawiya II ibn Yazid (683-684) Marwan I ibn Hakam (684-685) Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685-705)See also:

Rulers of Damascus, Rulers of Damascus - Canaanite, Rulers of Damascus - Aram Damascus, Rulers of Damascus - Period of non-independence, Rulers of Damascus - Ummayad dynasty, Rulers of Damascus - Ummayad emirs, Rulers of Damascus - Ummayad dynasty ruling in Damascus, Rulers of Damascus - Abbasid emirs, Rulers of Damascus - Fatimid emirs, Rulers of Damascus - Seljuk emirs, Rulers of Damascus - Burid emirs, Rulers of Damascus - Zengid atabegs, Rulers of Damascus - Ayyubid sultans, Rulers of Damascus - Mameluk Bahrid emirs, Rulers of Damascus - Ottoman walis, Rulers of Damascus - Hashemite kingdom, Rulers of Damascus - Capital of Syria

Read more here: » Rulers of Damascus: Encyclopedia II - Rulers of Damascus - Ummayad dynasty

This is a topic of some controversy, since Islamic scholars proceed with the assumption that the Qur'an is a divine and uncorrupted text, while most secular scholars and non-Muslim scholars are more skeptical. Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars. Muhammad, according to tradition, could neither read nor write, but would simply recite what was revealed to him for his companions to write down and memorize. Adherents to Islam hold that the wording of the Qur'anic text available today corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad himself: words o ...

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Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an

The following listed kingdoms and empires were at some time ruled by Turkic kings/khans/shahs or other dynasties. Mentioning of any particular entity in this place should not be read to mean that the entity as a whole was Turkic or even had more than a significant minority of Turkic subjects. Desht-i-Kypcak Gokturk State (552-744) Bulgars (2nd-9th century) Great Bulgaria (580s-635) Volga Bulgaria (800-1236) Pechenegs (860-1091) Khazars (7th-10th century)See also:

List of Turkic states and empires, List of Turkic states and empires - Historical kingdoms and empires, List of Turkic states and empires - Turkic-Mongolian States, List of Turkic states and empires - Turkic States in Eastern Europe, List of Turkic states and empires - Modern Turkic Countries, List of Turkic states and empires - Autonomous Turkic republics in the Russian Federation, List of Turkic states and empires - Other Autonomous Turkic regions

Read more here: » List of Turkic states and empires: Encyclopedia II - List of Turkic states and empires - Historical kingdoms and empires

Li Bai was the son of a rich merchant; his birthplace is uncertain, but one candidate is Suiye in Central Asia (near modern day Tokmak, Kyrgyzstan). His family moved to Jiangyou, near modern Chengdu in Sichuan province, when he was five years old. He was influenced by Confucian and Taoist thought, but ultimately his family heritage did not provide him with much opportunity in the aristocratic Tang dynasty. Though he expressed the wish to become an official, he did not sit for the Chinese civil service examination. Instead, beginning at age t ...

See also:

Li Bai, Li Bai - Biography, Li Bai - Poetry, Li Bai - Influence

Read more here: » Li Bai: Encyclopedia II - Li Bai - Biography

Damascus - Ancient. Excavations at Tell Ramad on the outskirts of the city have demonstrated that Damascus has been inhabited as early as 8,000 to 10,000 BC. It is due to this that Damascus is considered to be the oldest continually inhabited city in the world. However, Damascus is not documented as an important city until the coming of the Aramaeans, Semitic nomads who arrived from the Arabian peninsula. It is known that it was the Aramaeans who first established the water distribution system of Damascus by cons ...

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Damascus, Damascus - Name, Damascus - Geography, Damascus - History, Damascus - Ancient, Damascus - Greco-Roman, Damascus - From the Muslim conquest to the Fatimids, Damascus - Fatimids the Crusades and the Seljuks, Damascus - Mamluk rule, Damascus - Timurlank, Damascus - The Ottoman conquest, Damascus - Rise of Arab nationalism, Damascus - Modern, Damascus - Historical sites, Damascus - The walls and gates of Damascus, Damascus - Born in Damascus, Damascus - Further References

Read more here: » Damascus: Encyclopedia II - Damascus - History

Most academic scholars agree that Muhammad had not explicitly established how the Muslim community was to be governed after his death. Two questions faced these early Muslims: who was to succeed Muhammad, and what sort of authority he was to exercise. Caliph - Succession to Muhammad. Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and choose a le ...

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Caliph, Caliph - Origins of the caliphate, Caliph - Succession to Muhammad, Caliph - The authority of the caliph, Caliph - The history of the caliphate, Caliph - How the Caliphate came to an end, Caliph - Reasons for the fall and continuing dormancy of the Caliphate, Caliph - Famous caliphs, Caliph - Dynasties, Caliph - Claims to the caliphate, Caliph - Lists of Caliphal dynasties and seats, Caliph - The Rashidun Righteously Guided, Caliph - The Umayyads of Damascus, Caliph - The Abbasids of Baghdad, Caliph - The Abbasid branch of Cairo, Caliph - The Ottoman Padishahs, Caliph - The secular Republic of Turkey, Caliph - The Sharifan house in now Saudi Arabia, Caliph - Sources and references

Read more here: » Caliph: Encyclopedia II - Caliph - Origins of the caliphate

Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy. Their own traditions (preserved in the Origo Gentis Langobardorum) describe how they were formerly called Winili, and how they left Scandinavia under the leaders Ybor and Agio, and settled in Continental Europe, in the lower course of the Elbe river, where they were recorded by Tacitus as early as A.D. 98: What, on the contrary, ennobles the Langobards is the smallness of their number, for that they, who are surrounded with very many and very ...

See also:

Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty First Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Second Time, Lombards - Beneventan Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Third Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings

Read more here: » Lombards: Encyclopedia II - Lombards - History

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In addition to and largely independent of the division into surahs, there are various ways of dividing the Qur'an into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading, recitation and memorization. The seven manazil (stations) and the thirty ajza' (parts) can be used to work through the entire Qur’an in a week or a month, one manzil or one juz' a day, respectively. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ahzab (groups), and each hizb is in turn subdivided into four quarters. A different structure is provided by the ruku'at, semantical u ...

See also:

Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation

Most Muslims today use printed versions of the Qur'an. There are many editions, large and small, elaborate or plain, expensive or cheap [4]. Bi-lingual forms with the Arabic on one side and a gloss into a more familiar language on the other are very popular. Qur'ans are produced in many different sizes, from extremely large Qur'ans [5] [6] for display purposes, to extremely small Qur'ans [7]. Qurans were first printed from carved wooden blocks, one block per page. There are existing specimen of pages and blocks dating from the ...

See also:

Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Before touching a copy of the Qur'an, or mushaf, a Muslim performs wudu (ablution or a ritual cleansing with water). This is based on tradition and a literal interpretation of sura 56:77-79: "That this is indeed a qur'an Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which none shall touch but those who are clean." Qur'an desecration means insulting the Qur'an by defiling or dismembering it. Muslims must always treat the book with reverence, and are forbidden, for instance, to pulp, recycle, or simply discard worn-out copies o ...

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Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture

The very word Qur'an is usually translated as "recital," indicating that it cannot exist as a mere text. It has always been transmitted orally as well as textually. To even be able to perform salat (prayer), a mandatory obligation in Islam, a Muslim is required to learn at least some suras of the Qur'an (typically starting with the first sura, al-Fatiha, known as the "seven oft-repeated verses," and the ...

See also:

Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - Qur'an recitation

Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lay dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 81 years. Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims might favor a caliphate in the abstract, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the caliphate from garnering much activ ...

See also:

Caliph, Caliph - Origins of the caliphate, Caliph - Succession to Muhammad, Caliph - The authority of the caliph, Caliph - The history of the caliphate, Caliph - How the Caliphate came to an end, Caliph - Revival of the caliphate, Caliph - Famous caliphs, Caliph - Dynasties, Caliph - Claims to the caliphate, Caliph - Lists of Caliphal dynasties and seats, Caliph - The Rashidun Righteously Guided, Caliph - The Umayyads of Damascus, Caliph - The Abbasids of Baghdad, Caliph - The Abbasid branch of Cairo, Caliph - The Ottoman Padishahs, Caliph - The secular Republic of Turkey, Caliph - The Sharifan house in now Saudi Arabia

Read more here: » Caliph: Encyclopedia II - Caliph - Revival of the caliphate

Much of our knowledge of the mythological and semi-mythological early history of the Lombard people comes from Paul the Deacon's History of the Lombards (Historia Langobardorum) written in the late 8th century, indebted to the 7th century Origo Gentis Langobardorum. According to the Lombards themselves, a legend documented by Paul the Deacon, their name was derived from a joke played on Odin (Godan) by his wife Frige (Frea). She told the Lombard women to tie their hair in front of their faces and when Odin saw the ...

See also:

Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty First Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Second Time, Lombards - Beneventan Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Third Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings

Read more here: » Lombards: Encyclopedia II - Lombards - Sources

The Qur'an contains narrative, exhortation, and legal prescription. The suras frequently combine all these modes, not always in ways that seem obvious to the reader, but ones that are generally explainable. Muslims often point out that the uniqueness of the Qur'anic style supports belief in its divine origin. There are many repeated epithets (e.g. "Lord of the heavens and the earth"), sentences ("And when We said unto the angels: Prostrate yourselves before Adam, they fell prostrate, all save Iblis"), and even stories (such as the sto ...

See also:

Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - Stylistic attributes

Lombards - Lething Dynasty. Tato (???) Lombards - Another Dynasty. Wacho (died 539) Waltari (539 - 546) Lombards - Gausian Dynasty. Audoin (546 - 565) Alboin (565 - 572) Lombards - Another Dynasty. Cleph (572 - 574) Rule of the Dukes (Ten year interregnum) Authari (584 - 590), son o ...

See also:

Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty First Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Second Time, Lombards - Beneventan Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Third Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings

Read more here: » Lombards: Encyclopedia II - Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards

Lombards - Lething Dynasty. Tato (???) Lombards - Another Dynasty. Wacho (died 539) Waltari (539 - 546) Lombards - Gausian Dynasty. Audoin (546 - 565) Alboin (565 - 572) Lombards - Another Dynasty. Cleph (572 - 574) Rule of the Dukes (Ten year interregnum) Authari (584 - 590), son of previou ...

See also:

Lombards, Lombards - History, Lombards - Origins and conquest of Italy, Lombards - Rothari and his successors, Lombards - The end of the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Lombards - Sources, Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards, Lombards - Lething Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Gausian Dynasty, Lombards - Another Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty First Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Second Time, Lombards - Beneventan Dynasty, Lombards - Bavarian Dynasty Third Time, Lombards - Non-dynastic Kings

Read more here: » Lombards: Encyclopedia II - Lombards - Historic kings of the Lombards

The most widespread varieties of Muslim theology consider the Qur'an to be eternal and uncreated. Given that Muslims believe that Biblical figures such as Moses and Jesus all preached the same message as Islam, the doctrine of an unchanging, uncreated revelation implies that contradictions between the statements of the earlier divine revelations (the Torah and then the Bible), and the final revelation from God, the Qur'an, m ...

See also:

Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an

The Qur'an has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication. As discussed earlier, later Muslims did not always understand the Qur'an's Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims, and they were extremely concerned to reconcile apparent contradictions and conflicts in the Qur'an. Commentators glossed the Arabic, explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, decided which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, an ...

See also:

Qur'an, Qur'an - Format of the Qur'an, Qur'an - The Qur'an for reading and recitation, Qur'an - The language of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Translation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - Stylistic attributes, Qur'an - The beginnings of the suras, Qur'an - The temporal order of Qur'anic verses, Qur'an - Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible, Qur'an - Origin and development of the Qur'an, Qur'an - According to Islamic scholars, Qur'an - According to non-Muslim scholars, Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an, Qur'an - 'Created' vs. 'uncreated' Qur'an, Qur'an - Qur'an recitation, Qur'an - Schools of recitation, Qur'an - The Qur'an and Islamic culture, Qur'an - Writing and printing the Qur'an

Read more here: » Qur'an: Encyclopedia II - Qur'an - Interpretation of the Qur'an