"Byzantium may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire, soon comprised the Hellenized empire of the East and ended its thousand year history, in 1453, as a Greek Orthodox state: An empire that became a nation, almost by the modern meaning of the word".1 In the centuries following the Arab and Lombard conquests in the 7th century, its multi-ethnic (albeit not multi-national) nature remained even though its constituent parts in the Balkans and Asia Minor contained an overwhelmingly large Greek p ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity, continuity, and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Identity, continuity, and consciousness

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In China they were known as Yanda (厌哒 or 嚈噠) also written Yedaiyiliduo/Yeda/Yeoptal, but are documented as having called themselves Hua or Huer (滑), chroniclers recognising that the Chinese Yoptal terms came actually from the name of the Hua leaders. Peoples with similar ethnicons had been present in Central Eurasia for centuries. The Chinese classic Liang Zhigongtu describes them as of the same origin as the Hua Country in China. Yanda has been given various latinised renderings such as "Y ...

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Hephthalite, Hephthalite - Name, Hephthalite - Expansion, Hephthalite - Hephthalites in India, Hephthalite - Origin Theories

Read more here: » Hephthalite: Encyclopedia II - Hephthalite - Name

The Eastern Roman Empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the late 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. During these years the Empire held out against pressure from the Roman church to remove Patriarch Photios, and gained control over the Adriatic Sea, parts of Italy, and much of the land held by the Bulgarians. Under the emperor Basil II (reigned 976-1025AD), the Bulgarians, who had conquered much of the Balkans from the Byzantines since their arrival two hundred years previously, became the target of annual campaig ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Golden era

Main article: Indo-Hephthalites The Hephthalites, or Huna as they were known in India, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. The Indian emperor Skandagupta repelled a Hūna invasion in 455, but the Hephthalites continued to pressure India's northwest frontier (present day Pakistan), and broke through into northern India by the end of the fifth centu ...

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Hephthalite, Hephthalite - Name, Hephthalite - Expansion, Hephthalite - Hephthalites in India, Hephthalite - Origin Theories

Read more here: » Hephthalite: Encyclopedia II - Hephthalite - Hephthalites in India

He introduced a rational system of taxation, based upon a survey of landed possessions, which his father had begun, and tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire. In Babylonia he built or restored the canals. His army was in discipline decidedly superior to the Romans, and apparently was well paid. He was also interested in literature and philosophical discussions. Under his reign, chess was introduced from India, and the famous book of Kalilah and Dimnah was transl ...

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Khosrau I of Persia, Khosrau I of Persia - Early life, Khosrau I of Persia - Conquests, Khosrau I of Persia - Religious tolerance, Khosrau I of Persia - Reforms

Read more here: » Khosrau I of Persia: Encyclopedia II - Khosrau I of Persia - Reforms

Early Buddhist legends feature Lichavi as a ruling family during Buddha's time in India, however links to the Nepalese kingdom are speculative. The language of Lichavi inscriptions is Sanskrit, and the particular script used is closely related to official Gupta scripts, suggesting that India was a significant cultural influence. This was likely through Mithila - the northern part of modern Bihar, India. A table of the evolution of certain Gupta characters used in Lichavi inscriptions originally published in Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies. Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. ( ...

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Licchavi, Licchavi - Origins, Licchavi - Records, Licchavi - Government, Licchavi - Economy, Licchavi - Geography, Licchavi - Domain, Licchavi - Sites, Licchavi - Rulers

Read more here: » Licchavi: Encyclopedia II - Licchavi - Origins

Although Khosrau had in the last years of his father extirpated the heretical and communistic Persian sect of the Mazdakites (see Kavadh), he was a sincere adherent of Zoroastrian orthodoxy and even ordered that the religion's holy text, the Avesta be codified, but he was not fanatical or prone to persecution. He tolerated every Christian confession. When one of his sons had rebelled about 550 and was taken prisoner, he did not execute h ...

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Khosrau I of Persia, Khosrau I of Persia - Early life, Khosrau I of Persia - Conquests, Khosrau I of Persia - Religious tolerance, Khosrau I of Persia - Reforms

Read more here: » Khosrau I of Persia: Encyclopedia II - Khosrau I of Persia - Religious tolerance

"Byzantium may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire, soon comprised the Hellenized empire of the East and ended its thousand year history, in 1453, as a Greek Orthodox state: An empire that became a nation, almost by the modern meaning of the word".1 In the centuries following the Arab and Lombard conquests in the 7th century, its multi-ethnic (albeit not multi-national) nature remained even though its constituent parts in the Balkans and Asia Minor contained an overwhelmingly large Greek p ...

See also:

Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness

As with his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law his belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation; and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties (Cod., I., i. 5); whereas he subsequently declared that he designed to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law (MPG, lxxxvi. 1, p. 993 ...

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Justinian I, Justinian I - Life, Justinian I - Legal activities, Justinian I - Military activities and the campaigns of Belisarius, Justinian I - Suppression of non-Christian religions, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical policy, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical Relations with Rome, Justinian I - Bibliography

Read more here: » Justinian I: Encyclopedia II - Justinian I - Ecclesiastical policy

From the middle of the fifth century onward increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. For one thing, the radicals on all sides felt themselves constantly repelled by the creed adopted by the Council of Chalcedon to bridge the gap between the dogmatic parties. The letter of Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople was widely considered in the East as the work of Satan[citation needed]; so that nobody cared to hear of the Church of Rome. The emperors, however, had a policy of pre ...

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Justinian I, Justinian I - Life, Justinian I - Legal activities, Justinian I - Military activities and the campaigns of Belisarius, Justinian I - Suppression of non-Christian religions, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical policy, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical Relations with Rome, Justinian I - Bibliography

Read more here: » Justinian I: Encyclopedia II - Justinian I - Ecclesiastical Relations with Rome

Main article: Names of the Greeks The name Byzantine Empire is derived from the original Greek name for Constantinople; Byzantium. The name is a modern term and would have been alien to its contemporaries. The Empire's native Greek name was Ῥωμανία Romanía or Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων Basileía Romaíon, a direct translation of the Latin name of the Roman Empire, See also:

Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire

Justinian's religious policy reflected the imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire unconditionally presupposed unity of faith; and with him it seemed a matter of course that this faith could be only the orthodox. Those of a different belief had to recognize that the process which imperial legislation had begun from Constantius II down would now vigorously continue. The Codex contained two statutes (Cod., I., xi. 9 and 10) which decreed the total destruction of Hellenism, even in the civil life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, John ...

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Justinian I, Justinian I - Life, Justinian I - Legal activities, Justinian I - Military activities and the campaigns of Belisarius, Justinian I - Suppression of non-Christian religions, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical policy, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical Relations with Rome, Justinian I - Bibliography

Read more here: » Justinian I: Encyclopedia II - Justinian I - Suppression of non-Christian religions

Like his Roman predecessors and Byzantine successors, Justinian initially engaged in war against Sassanid Persia. However, his primary military ambitions focused on the western Mediterranean, where his general Belisarius spearheaded the reconquest of parts of the territory of the old Roman Empire. Belisarius gained this task as a reward after successfully putting down the Nika riots in Constantinople in January of 532, in which chariot racing fanatics had forced Justinian to dismiss the unpopular Tribonian, and had then attempted to overthro ...

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Justinian I, Justinian I - Life, Justinian I - Legal activities, Justinian I - Military activities and the campaigns of Belisarius, Justinian I - Suppression of non-Christian religions, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical policy, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical Relations with Rome, Justinian I - Bibliography

Read more here: » Justinian I: Encyclopedia II - Justinian I - Military activities and the campaigns of Belisarius

Much damage has been done by earthquakes from time to time. The importance of Benevento in classical times is vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in 114, with important reliefs relating to its history. There are other considerable remains: The well-preserved ancient theatre. A large cryptoporticus 197 ft. long, known as the ruins of Santi Quaranta, and probably an emporiu ...

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Benevento, Benevento - History, Benevento - Benevento in antiquity, Benevento - Duchy of Benevento, Benevento - Papal Benevento, Benevento - Sights, Benevento - Miscellaneous

Read more here: » Benevento: Encyclopedia II - Benevento - Sights

Justinian achieved lasting influence for his judicial reforms, notably the summation of all Roman law, something that had never been done before in the mass of unorganized Roman Laws with no coherence. Justinian commissioned quaestor Tribonian to the task, and he issued the first draft of the Corpus Juris Civilis on April 7, 529 in three parts: Digesta (or Pandectae), Institutiones, and the Codex. The Corpus was in Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Empire, but which most citizens of the Ea ...

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Justinian I, Justinian I - Life, Justinian I - Legal activities, Justinian I - Military activities and the campaigns of Belisarius, Justinian I - Suppression of non-Christian religions, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical policy, Justinian I - Ecclesiastical Relations with Rome, Justinian I - Bibliography

Read more here: » Justinian I: Encyclopedia II - Justinian I - Legal activities

Caracalla's decree in 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana, extended citizenship outside of Italy to all free adult males in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of Rome itself. The importance of this decree is historical rather than political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied around the entire Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all of Italy. Of course, integration did not take place uniformly. ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Origin

The Eastern Roman Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the 3rd and 4th centuries (see Crisis of the Third Century) in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of Rome. Throughout the 5th century, various invasions conquered the western half of the Roman Empire and at best only demanded tribute from the eastern half. Theodosius II fortified the walls of Constantinople, leaving the city impenetrable to attacks: it was to be preserved from foreign conques ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Early history

Of all the turbulent events that occurred during its long life, The Fourth Crusade had the most devastating effect on the empire. Although the stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt, the leaders of the Crusade ran in to trouble when they found that considerably fewer men had responded to the call than had been expected. As a result, they could not afford to pay the Venetians for all the ships they had hired. After some time spent arguing over what to do next, the Venetians came up with a new proposal, and under their influence the ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire

It is said history is written by the winners, and no better example of this statement is shown in the treatment of the Byzantine Empire in history. It is an empire resented by Western Europe, as shown by the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade. A popular American university textbook4 on medieval history that circulated in the 1960s and 1970s, has this to say in the only paragraph in the book devoted to "Byzantium": The history of Byzantium is a study in disappointment. The empire centering on Constantinopl ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance

Although the three competent Comnenan emperors, especially Manuel, had the power to expel the outnumbered Seljuks, there were a number of reasons they never did so. Whereas the Byzantines had ultimately prevailed over the Arabs in the eighth century, driving them out of Asia Minor and holding a frontier against them, in the twelfth century the Turks were more successful in establishing themselves in these same lands. This was partially due to their nomadic lifestyle, which made them much better suited to life in Anatolia than the Arabs had b ...

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Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - The term Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Identity continuity and consciousness, Byzantine Empire - Origin, Byzantine Empire - Early history, Byzantine Empire - The age of Justinian I, Byzantine Empire - The fight for survival, Byzantine Empire - Golden era, Byzantine Empire - The Comneni and the Crusaders, Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline, Byzantine Empire - The Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire - Legacy and importance, Byzantine Empire - Bibliography

Read more here: » Byzantine Empire: Encyclopedia II - Byzantine Empire - Underlying reasons for decline