431 BCE

Aspasia (c.469–c.406 BCE) was the mistress of Pericles. Aspasia was born in the Ionian Greek colony of Miletus (in what is now Turkey), but at some point travelled to Athens, where she became a hetaira — a high-class entertainer, something like a courtesan, but closer to the Japanese geisha. Hetairai differed from most Athenian women in being educated (often to a high standard, as in Aspasia's ...

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In Greek mythology, Medea was the daughter of King Aeetes of Colchis (now a territory of modern Georgia), niece of Circe, and later wife to Jason. The myths that involve Medea have been interpreted by some specialists, principally in the past, as part of a class of myths that tell how the Hellenes of the distant heroic age, before the Trojan War, faced the challenges of the pre-Greek "Pelasgian" cultures of mainland Greece, and the Aegean and Anatolia. Jason, Perseus, Theseus, and above all Heracles, are all "liminal" figures, ...

Including:

• Medea - Medea in music
• Medea - Medea in literature
• Medea - Medea on film

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The beginning of the 5th century saw Sparta at the height of her power, though her prestige must have suffered in the fruitless attempts made to impose upon Athens an oligarchical régime after the fall of the Peisistratid tyranny in 510. But after the Persian Wars the Spartan supremacy could no longer remain unchallenged. Sparta had dispatched an army in 490, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, to aid Athens in repelling the armament sent against it by Darius: but it arrived after the Battle of Marath ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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The Punjab presented a picture of chaos and confusion when Ranjit Singh took the control of Sukerchakias misal. The edifice of Ahmad Shah's empire in India had crumbled. Afghanistan was dismembered. Peshawar and Kashmir though under the suzerainty of Afghanistan had attained de facto independence. The Barakzais were now masters of these lands. Attock was ruled by Wazrikhels and Jhang lay at the feet of Sials. The Pathans ruled Kasur. Multa ...

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History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power

Luigi Cherubini composed the opera Médée in 1797 and it is Cherubini's best known work, but better known by its Italian title, Medea. Darius Milhaud composed the opera Médée in 1939, text by Madeleine Milhaud (his wife and cousin). ...

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Medea, Medea - Medea in music, Medea - Medea in literature, Medea - Medea on film

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We cannot trace in detail the process by which Sparta subjugated the whole of Laconia, but apparently the first step, taken in the reign of Archelaus and Charillus, was to secure the upper Eurotas valley, conquering the border territory of Aegys. Archelaus' son Teleclus is said to have taken Amyclae, Pharis and Geronthrae, thus mastering the central Laconian plain and the eastern plateau which lies between the Eurotas and Mount Parnon: his son, Alcamenes, by the subjugation ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Tradition relates that Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, son of Zeus and Taygete, who called the city after his wife, the daughter of Eurotas. But Amyclae and Therapne (Therapnae) seem to have been in early times of greater importance than Sparta, the former a Minoan foundation a few miles to the south of Sparta, the latter probably the Achaean capital of Laconia and the seat of Menelaus, Agamemnon's younger brother. Eighty years after the Trojan War, according to the traditional chronology, the Dorian migration took place. A band of Dorians united with a body of Aetolians to cross the Corint ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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The fall of Athens left Sparta once again supreme in the Greek world and demonstrated clearly its total unfitness for rule. Everywhere democracy was replaced by a philo-Laconian oligarchy, usually consisting of ten men under a harmost or governor pledged to Spartan interests, and even in Laconia itself the narrow and selfish character of the Spartan rule led to a serious conspiracy. For a short time, indeed, under the energetic rule of Agesilaus, it seemed as if Sparta would pursue a Hellenic policy and carry on the war against Persia. But troubles soon broke out in Greece, Agesilaus II was recalled from Asia Mino ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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In CE 406 Alaric destroyed the city, and at a later period Laconia was invaded and settled by Slavonic tribes, especially the Melings and Ezerits, who in turn had to give way before the advance of the Byzantine power, though preserving a partial independence in the mountainous regions. In fact, Slavic tribes were found in the Peloponnese until well into Ottoman times. It has been theorized that speakers of the now-moribund Doric derived language of Tsakonian are the descen ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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Nonetheless, a vigorous struggle was maintained with the Achaean League and with Macedon until the Romans, after the conclusion of their war with Philip V, sent an army into Laconia under T. Quinctius Flamininus. Nabis was forced to capitulate, evacuating all his possessions outside Laconia, surrendering the Laconian seaports and his navy, and paying an indemnity of 500 talents (Livy xxxiv. 33–43). On the departure of the Romans he succeeded in recovering Gythium, in spite of an attempt to relieve it made by the Achaeans under Philopoemen, but in an encounter he suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of th ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

Read more here: » History of Sparta: Encyclopedia II - History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome

Twenty-two years later the city was attacked by an immense force under Pyrrhus, but Spartan bravery had not died out and the formidable enemy was repulsed, even the women taking part in the defence of the city. About 244 BCE an Aetolian army overran Laconia, working irreparable harm and carrying off, it is said, 50,000 captives. But the social evils within the state were even harder to combat than foes without. Avarice, luxury, and the glaring inequality in the distribution of wealth threatened to bring about the speedy fall of the st ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

Read more here: » History of Sparta: Encyclopedia II - History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE

Early in the 6th century the Spartan kings Leon and Agasicles made a vigorous attack on Tegea, the most powerful of the Arcadian cities, but it was not until the reign of Anaxandridas and Ariston, about the middle of the century, that the attack was successful and Tegea was forced to acknowledge Spartan overlordship, though retaining its independence. The final struggle for Peloponnesian supremacy was with Argos, which had at an early period been the most powerful state of the peninsula and, even though its ter ...

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History of Sparta, History of Sparta - Prehistoric period, History of Sparta - The expansion of Sparta, History of Sparta - The 6th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 5th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 4th century BCE, History of Sparta - The 3rd century BCE, History of Sparta - Intervention of Rome, History of Sparta - Medieval Sparta, History of Sparta - Modern Sparta

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In terms of area, Pakistan obtained roughly 70% of the Punjab in 1947, including most of the population, which was Muslim. More than 10 million Hindus and Sikhs were forced to leave Pakistani Punjab due to fierce communal violence and pressures from the new Islamic state's government. The population transfer took place on frightening levels, leaving a small number of Muslims in East, Indian Punjab, and some miserly numbers of Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistani Punjab. Some controversial decisions of the Radcliffe boundary commissions exace ...

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History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

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Of the sixteen great kingdoms (solas Mahajanapadas) that evolved prior to the rise of Buddhism in ancient Indian sub-continent, only the two viz. Gandhara and Kamboja lied in the north-west region commonly known as Uttarapatha. Eastern parts of ancient Gandhara and Kamboja constituted the north-western parts of ancient Panjab (Greater Panjab) which lay at the eastern edge of the great Persian Empire. Both these ancient kingdoms appear to have fallen prey to Achaemenian Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Achaemenid, Cyrus the Great (558-53 ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

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Main articles: Aryan invasion theory, Vedic civilization Factors in the civilization's decline likely included a change in weather patterns and unsustainable urbanization (i.e., without any rural agricultural production base). Another factor is reported to be the series of migrations along with raids by the Aryans from the northwest (roughly 1700-1500 BCE, see Indo-Iranians). The next one thousand years of the history of the Punjab (1500 BCE up to 500 BCE) is dominated by the Indo-Aryans and their interactions with the Natives of the Indus basin. < ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans

The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah (1580), which mentions the construction of a fort by "Sher Khan of Punjab". The name is mentioned again in Ain-e-Akbari (part 1), written by Abul Fazal, who also mentions that the territory of Punjab was divided into two provinces, Lahore and Multan. Similarly in the second volume of Ain-e-Akbari, the title of a chapter includes the word Punjab in it. The Mughal King Jahangir also mentions the word ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - Introduction

In the eighth decade of fourth century BCE, the companions of Alexander the Great did not record the names of Gandhara and/or the Kamboja and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories. This rules out the possibility of rise of Gandhara and/or Kamboja as great kingdoms in the second and third quarters of fourth century BCE. In 326 BC, most of these political units of the former Gandhara/Kamboja Mahajanapadas were conquered by Alexander. The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius an ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms

Following the birth of Islam in Arabia in the 6th century, the Muslims rose to power, replacing Persia as the major power to the west of India. In 711-713 Muslim armies conquered Sind and advanced into the southern Punjab, occupying Multan. Multan became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. The northern Punjab was divided into small Hindu kingdoms. The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled much of the Punjab, as well as western Afghanistan, from the mid-ninth to the early eleventh centuries. The Shahi Kingdom was originally based in Kabul, and later spread across the Punjab. Kabul was lost to Turkic Mu ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom

By 1845 the British had moved 32,000 troops to the Sutlej frontier, ostensibly to secure their northernmost possessions against the succession struggles in the Punjab. In late 1845, British and Sikh troops engaged near Ferozepur, beginning the First Anglo-Sikh War. The war ended the following year, and the territory between the Sutlej and the Beas was ceded to Britain, along with Kashmir, which ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab

After Muhammad's death in 1206, his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak took control of Muhummad's Indian empire, including Afghanistan, the Punjab, and northern India. Qutb-ud-din moved his capital of the empire from Ghazni to Lahore, and, after becoming Sultan, to Delhi; the empire he founded was called the Sultanate of Delhi. His successors were known as the Mamluk or Slave dynasty, and ruled from his death in 1210 to 1290. The Mongols, who had conquered Muhammad Ghori's former possessions in Central Asia, continued to encroach on the Sultan ...

See also:

History of the Punjab, History of the Punjab - Introduction, History of the Punjab - Indo-Aryans, History of the Punjab - Vedic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Epic Punjab, History of the Punjab - Paninian Punjab, History of the Punjab - Persian Domination, History of the Punjab - Alexander's Invasion and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, History of the Punjab - Sakas Kushanas and Hephthalites, History of the Punjab - Muslim invasions and the Shahi Kingdom, History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire, History of the Punjab - The Rise of Sikh Power, History of the Punjab - The British in Punjab, History of the Punjab - The Punjab of India and Pakistan, History of the Punjab - Punjab History Timeline

Read more here: » History of the Punjab: Encyclopedia II - History of the Punjab - The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal empire