19th centuries - Article Index

Encyclopedia - Caloric Theory: Encyclopedia - Caloric Theory
The caloric theory of heat is an obsolete scientific theory in thermodynamics, developed mostly during the 18th and 19th centuries. Calor...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Armenians: Encyclopedia - Armenians
The Armenians are a nation and an ethnic group, originating in the Caucasus and eastern Asia Minor. A large concentration remain there, e...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Bannock Food: Encyclopedia - Bannock Food
A bannock is a bread thinner than a scone. It is a form of flat cake, baked on a griddle and popular in Scotland, and is generally made o...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Bedgown: Encyclopedia - Bedgown
A bedgown (sometimes bedjacket or shortgown) is an article of women's clothing for the upper body, usually thigh-length and wrapping or t...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Anglo-irish: Encyclopedia - Anglo-irish
Anglo-Irish literally means English-Irish. It is used frequently, though inaccurately, to describe formal contacts, negotiations, and tre...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Native Americans In The United States: Encyclopedia - Native Americans In The United States
Native Americans in the United States (also Indians, American Indians, First Americans, Indigenous Peoples, Aboriginal Peoples, Aborigina...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas: Encyclopedia - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas
The scope of this indigenous peoples of the Americas article encompasses the definitions of indigenous peoples and the Americas as establ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Zionism: Encyclopedia - Zionism
Zionism is a political movement and an ideology that supports a Jewish homeland in the Land of Israel, where the Jewish nation originated...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Buckley: Encyclopedia - Buckley
Buckley (Welsh: Bwcle) is a town in Flintshire, Wales, United Kingdom. It is the second largest town in Flintshire in terms of populatio...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Vis Viva: Encyclopedia - Vis Viva
Vis viva - Summary. Vis Viva (from the Latin for living force) is an obsolete scientific theory that served as an elementary and limite...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - William Jessop: Encyclopedia - William Jessop
William Jessop (23 January 1745 - 18 November 1814) was a noted English civil engineer, particularly famed for his work on canals, harbou...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Upper Class: Encyclopedia - Upper Class
The term upper class refers to a group of people at the top of a social hierarchy. Often members of an upper class do not have to work fo...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chechnya: Encyclopedia - Chechnya
- total - % water - 15,500 km² - negligible - Total - Density - est. 1,103,686 (2002) - est. 71.2/km² The Chechen Republic (Russian: Ч...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Zambia: Encyclopedia - Zambia
The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa. It borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Catastrophism: Encyclopedia - Catastrophism
Catastrophism is the theory that Earth has been affected by sudden, short-lived, violent events that were sometimes worldwide in scope. T...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe: Encyclopedia - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ▶ (help·info) (IPA: /ˈgøːtə/) (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German novelist, dramatist, poet...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Urartu: Encyclopedia - Urartu
Urartu (Biainili in Urartian) was an ancient kingdom in eastern Anatolia, centred in the mountainous region around Lake Van (present-day ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chaise: Encyclopedia - Chaise
A chaise (the French for chair, through a transference from a sedan-chair to a wheeled vehicle) is a light two- or four-wheeled carriage ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Scythe: Encyclopedia - Scythe
A scythe is an agricultural hand tool for mowing and reaping grass or crops. It consists of a long (about 170 cm) wooden shaft called a s...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Pewter: Encyclopedia - Pewter
Pewter is a metal alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent tin, with the remainder consisting of 1-4 percent copper, acting as a ha...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Conservation Of Energy: Encyclopedia - Conservation Of Energy
Conservation of energy is possibly the most important, and certainly the most practically useful of several conservation laws in physics....   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chandelier: Encyclopedia - Chandelier
A chandelier is a ceiling-mounted fixture with two or more arms bearing lights. Modern chandeliers are often very ornate, containing doze...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Werewolf: Encyclopedia - Werewolf
A werewolf in folklore and mythology is a person who changes into a wolf, either by purposefully using magic or by being placed under a c...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Pocket: Encyclopedia - Pocket
A pocket is a small bag, particularly a bag-like receptacle either fastened to or inserted in an article of clothing. The word appears in...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Zionism: Encyclopedia Ii - Zionism - Establishment Of The Zionist Movement
Land of Israel Districts · Cities · Transportation Dead Sea · Red Sea · Sea of Galilee Mediterranean · Negev · Judea · Samaria Jer...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Thuggee: Encyclopedia Ii - Thuggee - Origins
The thuggee religion was allegedly a cult with both Hindu and Muslim members who practiced large-scale robbery and murder of travellers b...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Vis Viva: Encyclopedia Ii - Vis Viva - Summary
Vis Viva (from the Latin for living force) is an obsolete scientific theory that served as an elementary and limited early formulation of...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Zambia: Encyclopedia Ii - Zambia - History
The indigenous hunter-gatherer occupants of Zambia, (called Bushmen) began to be displaced or absorbed by more advanced migrating tribes ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas: Encyclopedia Ii - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas - Early History
See also: Archeology of the Americas, Models of migration to the New World Indigenous peoples of the Americas - The Bering Strait Land B...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe: Encyclopedia Ii - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe - Historical Importance
It is difficult to overstate the importance of Goethe on the 19th century. In many respects, he was the originator of—or at least the f...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Stendal: Encyclopedia Ii - Stendal - Sites Of Interest
Stendal - Theatre of the Altmark. The area has a theatre named Theater der Altmark, Stendal. It was founded in 1946 and has always had ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - South African Beer: Encyclopedia Ii - South African Beer - History
South African beer has had two main influences on its development. Firstly, European settlers who colonised the country brought expertise...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Budjak: Encyclopedia Ii - Budjak - History
In the antiquity, Budjak was inhabited by Dacians, Scythians, Celts, and, on the shores, by Greeks. From the AD 9th to the 12th centuries...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chinatowns In Asia: Encyclopedia Ii - Chinatowns In Asia - Specific Asian Chinatowns
Chinatowns in Asia - Cambodia. Phnom Penh's Chinatown is on Street 136. Cambodia experienced ethnic Chinese settlement beginning in the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness: Encyclopedia Ii - Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness - History
Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness - Human history. Within the BWCA are hundreds of prehistoric pictographs and petroglyphs on rock ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Appalachian Trail: Encyclopedia Ii - Appalachian Trail - States Included
Appalachian Trail - Georgia. Georgia has 75 miles (120 k) of the Trail [1], including the southern terminus at Springer Mountain (3280 ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Adamawa Province: Encyclopedia Ii - Adamawa Province - Geography
Adamawa Province - Land. The Adamawa is one of Cameroon's more geologically diverse areas. The Gotel and Mambila Mountains at the borde...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Francophobia: Encyclopedia Ii - Francophobia - France As Continental Hegemony
Though French history in the broadest sense extends back more than a millennium it has existed as a recognizable nation-state (rather tha...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Werewolf: Encyclopedia Ii - Werewolf - History Of The Werewolf
Many European countries and cultures have stories of werewolves, including Greece (lycanthropos), Spain (hombre lobo), Bulgaria (varkolak...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Catalonia Historic Territory: Encyclopedia Ii - Catalonia Historic Territory - History Of Catalonia
Main article: History of Catalonia Catalonia historic territory - Development of Catalonia as part of the Crown of Aragon into a Mediter...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Kashan: Encyclopedia Ii - Kashan - History
Archeological discoveries in the Sialk Hillocks which lie 2.5 Miles (4 km) west of Kashan reveal that this region was one of the primary ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Literary Theory: Encyclopedia Ii - Literary Theory - Literary Theory And Literature
One of the fundamental questions of literary theory is "What is literature?", though many contemporary theorists and literary scholars be...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Jharkhand: Encyclopedia Ii - Jharkhand - History
The demand for a separate Jharkhand state in recent times is traced back to the early 1900s, when Jaipal Singh, [1] the Oxford Captain of...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Inland Revenue: Encyclopedia Ii - Inland Revenue - History Of The Inland Revenue
The beginnings of the Inland Revenue date from 1665 when a Board of Taxes was set up following the introduction of special taxes to pay f...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of England: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of England - England Before The English
Archaeological evidence indicates that what is now southern England was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles due...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Singapore: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Singapore - Republic Of Singapore 1965 – Present
Immediately after independence, the tiny island nation of Singapore seemed extremely inadequate to survive by itself; much of the interna...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Llanelli: Encyclopedia Ii - Llanelli - History
Historically a minor town, Llanelli grew significantly in the 18th and 19th centuries with the mining of coal and later the tinplate indu...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Marwaris: Encyclopedia Ii - Marwaris - History
Since the time of the Mughal period (16th century-19th centuries), particularly from the time of Akbar (1542-1605), Marwari entrepreneurs...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Pornography: Encyclopedia Ii - Pornography - Legal Status
The legal status of pornography varies widely. Most countries allow at least some form of pornography. In some countries, softcore pornog...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Porto: Encyclopedia Ii - Porto - History
Historic references to the city go back to the 5th century and to Roman times. In the period before the foundation of Portugal, it was na...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Overseas Chinese: Encyclopedia Ii - Overseas Chinese - Relationship With China
Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China on Taiwan maintain highly complex relationships with overseas Chinese popul...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Mughal Painting: Encyclopedia Ii - Mughal Painting - Development
The Mughal painting developed and flourished during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. During the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Mudéjar: Encyclopedia Ii - Mudéjar - Mudéjar Style
In erecting Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance buildings, elements of Islamic art were used, achieving sometimes striking results. Its i...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Cieszyn: Encyclopedia Ii - Cieszyn - History
Cieszyn was the capital of the Duchy of Cieszyn and shared its history throughout the ages. It was at Cieszyn that Maria Theresa and Fred...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Epidemic Typhus: Encyclopedia Ii - Epidemic Typhus - Development Of The Vaccine
The first major step in the development of the vaccine was Charles Nicolle's 1909 discovery that lice were the vectors for epidemic typhu...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Mission San José: Encyclopedia Ii - Mission San José - Mission History
Mission San José - The Spanish Mission Era 1776 – 1820. The Mission was founded on a site which was part of a natural "highway" by w...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Porto: Encyclopedia Ii - Porto - History
Historic references to the city go back to the 5th century and to Roman times. In the period before the foundation of Portugal, it was na...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Military History Of Mexico: Encyclopedia Ii - Military History Of Mexico - 19th Century
Main article: Mexican War of Independence Military history of Mexico - Background to the War of Independence. The backgrounds to Mexico...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chinese Malaysian: Encyclopedia Ii - Chinese Malaysian - Education And Language
Traditionally, the Chinese Malaysians have placed great importance and value on education because of their view of education as being a m...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Kecskemét: Encyclopedia Ii - Kecskemét - Geography
Kecskemét was formed at the meeting point of a large sandy region and a sandy yellow soil, its height is 120 meters above sea level. The...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Werewolf: Encyclopedia Ii - Werewolf - History Of The Werewolf
Many European countries and cultures have stories of werewolves, including Greece (lycanthropos), Spain (hombre lobo), Bulgaria (varkolak...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Pornography: Encyclopedia Ii - Pornography - Legal Status
The legal status of pornography varies widely. Most countries allow at least some form of pornography. In some countries, softcore pornog...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Puerta Del Sol: Encyclopedia Ii - Puerta Del Sol - Contents Of The Puerta
The Puerta del Sol contains a number well known sights associated both domestically and internationally with Spain. On the south side, th...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Family Name: Encyclopedia Ii - Family Name - English-speaking Countries
Almost all surnames of English origin fall into just four types: Occupations (e.g. Smith, Baker, Archer) Personal characteristics (e.g. ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Zambia: Encyclopedia Ii - Zambia - History
The indigenous hunter-gatherer occupants of Zambia, (called Bushmen) began to be displaced or absorbed by more advanced migrating tribes ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Sun Tanning: Encyclopedia Ii - Sun Tanning - Cultural History
Culturally, a suntan may be regarded as attractive although this is susceptible to the whims of fashion. In ancient Rome, women deliberat...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Stamp Duty: Encyclopedia Ii - Stamp Duty - United Kingdom
Stamp duty - Introduction. In the United Kingdom, stamp duty is a form of tax charged on instruments (that is, written documents), and ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Rahel Varnhagen: Encyclopedia Ii - Rahel Varnhagen - Life And Works
Rahel's family life was very uncongenial during her childhood. Her father, a wealthy jeweler, was a strong-willed man who ruled his famil...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Sibiu: Encyclopedia Ii - Sibiu - Places Of Interest
Much of the city's aspect is due to its position, easily defensible, but allowing horizontal development. The old city of Sibiu lies on t...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Karlovac: Encyclopedia Ii - Karlovac - History
Karlovac was founded as a six-pointed star fortress built in the 16th century on the Zrinski estate near the old town of Dubovac at the c...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Gasparilla: Encyclopedia Ii - Gasparilla - The Story Of Gasparilla
The stories of Gaspar are fairly consistent. Most say he was born in Spain in 1756 and served in the Spanish Navy aboard the Floridablanc...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - French Language: Encyclopedia Ii - French Language - History
French language - The Roman invasion of Gaul. The French language is a Romance language, meaning that it is descended from Latin. Befor...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Friedrich Schiller University Of Jena: Encyclopedia Ii - Friedrich Schiller University Of Jena - History
The elector John Frederick the Magnanimous of Saxony first thought of a plan to establish a university at Jena in 1547 while he was being...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - French Language: Encyclopedia Ii - French Language - History
French language - The Roman invasion of Gaul. The French language is a Romance language, meaning that it is descended from Latin. Befor...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Francophobia: Encyclopedia Ii - Francophobia - France As Continental Hegemony
Though French history in the broadest sense extends back more than a millennium it has existed as a recognizable nation-state (rather tha...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Family Name: Encyclopedia Ii - Family Name - English-speaking Countries
Almost all surnames of English origin fall into just four types: Occupations (e.g. Smith, Baker, Archer) Personal characteristics (e.g. ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Founding Of Modern Singapore: Encyclopedia Ii - Founding Of Modern Singapore - The Need For A New British Port
Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Malay archipelago was gradually taken over by the European colonial powers, beginning with the a...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Armenia: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Armenia - Prehistory
Archaeologists refer to the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, including modern Armenia, as the earliest known ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Habeas Corpus: Encyclopedia Ii - Habeas Corpus - Habeas Corpus Ad Subjiciendum
Known as the "Great Writ", the writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum is a legal proceeding in which an individual held in custody can cha...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas: Encyclopedia Ii - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas - Early History
See also: Archeology of the Americas, Models of migration to the New World Indigenous peoples of the Americas - The Bering Strait Land B...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Isle Of Mull: Encyclopedia Ii - Isle Of Mull - Features
Mull has a coastline of 300 miles (≈480 km). Its landscape is primarily moorland, with a few peaks, and its climate is moderated b...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas: Encyclopedia Ii - Indigenous Peoples Of The Americas - Early History
See also: Archeology of the Americas, Models of migration to the New World Indigenous peoples of the Americas - The Bering Strait Land B...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Warwickshire: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Warwickshire - Ancient History
The Warwickshire area has almost certainly been inhabited since Prehistoric times. Remains of barrows and stone tools and axes have been ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of East Timor: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of East Timor - Decolonisation Coup And Independence
After the fall of the Portuguese fascist regime in 1974, independence was encouraged by the new, democratic Portuguese government. One of...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Habeas Corpus: Encyclopedia Ii - Habeas Corpus - Habeas Corpus Ad Subjiciendum
Known as the "Great Writ", the writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum is a legal proceeding in which an individual held in custody can cha...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Urartu: Encyclopedia Ii - Urartu - History
Urartu - Origins. Assyrian inscriptions of Shalmaneser I (ca. 1270 BC) first mention a loose confederation called the Uruartri or Nairi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Buckley: Encyclopedia Ii - Buckley - History
Buckley (the name comes from the Anglo-Saxon bok lee, meaning meadow, or field) was an Anglo-Saxon location, with some of its houses reco...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Finnish Language: Encyclopedia Ii - Finnish Language - Lexicon
Finnish extensively employs regular agglutination. It has a smaller core vocabulary than, for example, English, and uses derivative suffi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Armenians: Encyclopedia Ii - Armenians - History
Until modern times, the history of the Armenians is the history of Armenia. The name Armenia designated a shifting region, but the Armeni...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Fleet Marriage: Encyclopedia Ii - Fleet Marriage - Irregular Marriages
By the law of England a marriage was recognized as valid if each spouse had simply expressed (to each other) an unconditional consent the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Native Americans In The United States: Encyclopedia Ii - Native Americans In The United States - European Colonization
Native Americans in the United States - Initial impacts. The European colonization of the Americas forever changed the lives and cultur...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Anglo-irish: Encyclopedia Ii - Anglo-irish - Anglo-irish Peers
After the Flight of the Earls in 1607, the peerage of Ireland was composed entirely of Protestant families of British origin. One leading...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - French Language: Encyclopedia Ii - French Language - History
French language - The Roman invasion of Gaul. The French language is a Romance language, meaning that it is descended from Latin. Befor...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Conservation Of Energy: Encyclopedia Ii - Conservation Of Energy - Historical Development
Although ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus had inklings of the first law, it was the German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibni...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Caloric Theory: Encyclopedia Ii - Caloric Theory - History
In the history of thermodynamics, the initial explanations of heat were thoroughly confused with explanations of combustion. After J. J. ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chechnya: Encyclopedia Ii - Chechnya - History
Chechnya - Early history. Chechnya is a region in the Northern Caucasus which has constantly fought against foreign rule, beginning wit...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Family Name: Encyclopedia Ii - Family Name - English-speaking Countries
Almost all surnames of English origin fall into just four types: Occupations (e.g. Smith, Baker, Archer) Personal characteristics (e.g. ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Freiburg: Encyclopedia Ii - Freiburg - History
Freiburg was founded in the 12th century by Duke Konrad of Zahringen as a free market town, hence its name. It was strategically located ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Armenia: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Armenia - The First Republic 1917-1922
After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the takeover of the Bolsheviks, Stepan Shaumyan was placed in charge of Armenia. The convention ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chechnya: Encyclopedia Ii - Chechnya - Geography
Situated in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, Chechnya is surrounded on nearly all sides by Russian territory. In the west, it bord...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Chechnya: Encyclopedia Ii - Chechnya - Economy
Chechnya - As of 2003. During the war, the Chechen economy fell apart. Gross domestic product, if reliably calculable, would be only a ...   » Read the article