The caloric theory of heat is an obsolete scientific theory in thermodynamics, developed mostly during the 18th and 19th centuries. Caloric theory - History. In the history of thermodynamics, the initial explanations of heat were thoroughly confused with explanations of combustion. After J. J. Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl introduced the phlogiston theory of combustion in the 17th century, phlogiston was thought to be the substance of heat. The calorific theory was introduced by Antoine ...

Including:

• Caloric theory - History
• Caloric theory - Theory
• Caloric theory - Successes
• Caloric theory - Demise
• Caloric theory - Significance in the philosophy of science
• Caloric theory - Notes

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The Armenians are a nation and an ethnic group, originating in the Caucasus and eastern Asia Minor. A large concentration remain there, especially in Armenia, but almost as many are scattered elsewhere throughout the world (see Armenian Diaspora). Russia: 2–2.5 million 2 est. Georgia: 248,900–400,0004 est. United States: 385,488 (2000 census) — 1 million est. 3 France: 250,000 6 est. Iran: 200,000^Including:

• Armenians - History
• Armenians - Geographic distribution
• Armenians - Culture
• Armenians - Language
• Armenians - Religion
• Armenians - Institutions
• Armenians - Classification

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A bannock is a bread thinner than a scone. It is a form of flat cake, baked on a griddle and popular in Scotland, and is generally made of oatmeal and takes the form of a large oatcake. However, the meaning is not universal and some Scots use the term to refer to a wheat flour cake similar to a large thin scone. Scottish bannock is also quite popular in eastern Canada, especially in the Atlantic provinces. The oldest and certainly the most famous of all Bannocks is The Selkirk Bannock, The first bannock is said to have b ...

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A bedgown (sometimes bedjacket or shortgown) is an article of women's clothing for the upper body, usually thigh-length and wrapping or tying in front. Bedgowns of lightweight printed cotton fabric were fashionable at-home morning wear in the 18th century. Over time, bedgowns (also called in this context shortgowns) became the staple upper garment of British and American female working-class street wear from the 18th to early 19th centuries, worn over petticoats and often topped with an apron. Made of sturd ...

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Anglo-Irish literally means English-Irish. It is used frequently, though inaccurately, to describe formal contacts, negotiations, and treaties between the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (not, as the the term should strictly denote, between the UK constituent country of England and the island of Ireland). Some examples of this usage are the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985, and the Anglo-Irish Summits (as meetings between the Brit ...

Including:

• Anglo-Irish - Anglo-Irish peers
• Anglo-Irish - Protestants with horses

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Native Americans in the United States (also Indians, American Indians, First Americans, Indigenous Peoples, Aboriginal Peoples, Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, Amerinds, or Original Americans) are those indigenous peoples within the territory that is now encompassed by the continental United States, and their descendants in ...

Including:

• Native Americans in the United States - Early history
• Native Americans in the United States - The Bering Strait Land Bridge theory
• Native Americans in the United States - Settling down
• Native Americans in the United States - European colonization
• Native Americans in the United States - Initial impacts
• Native Americans in the United States - Early relations
• Native Americans in the United States - Removal and reservations
• Native Americans in the United States - Current status
• Native Americans in the United States - Cultural aspects
• Native Americans in the United States - Society
• Native Americans in the United States - Religion
• Native Americans in the United States - Gender roles
• Native Americans in the United States - Music and art
• Native Americans in the United States - Economy
• Native Americans in the United States - Terminology differences
• Native Americans in the United States - Common usage in the U.S.
• Native Americans in the United States - Bibliography

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The scope of this indigenous peoples of the Americas article encompasses the definitions of indigenous peoples and the Americas as established in their respective articles. Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Early history. See also: Archeology of the Americas, Models of migration to the New World Indigenous peoples of the Americas - The Bering Strait Land Bridge Theory. Based on anthropological and genetic evidence, scientists generally agree that most indigenous ...

Including:

• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Early history
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - The Bering Strait Land Bridge Theory
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - European colonization of the Americas
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - United States
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Canada
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Mexico
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Belize
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Guatemala
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Brazil
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Argentina
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Other parts of the Americas
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Statistics on indigenous populations
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Cultural aspects
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Gender
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Music and art
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Controversial terminology
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Canada and the North
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas - Latin America

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Zionism is a political movement and an ideology that supports a Jewish homeland in the Land of Israel, where the Jewish nation originated and where Jewish kingdoms and self-governing states existed at various times in history. While Zionism is based heavily upon religious tradition linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, the modern movement was originally secular, beginning largely as a response to ram ...

Including:

• Zionism - Establishment of the Zionist movement
• Zionism - Zionist initiatives
• Zionism - Jewish reaction to Zionism
• Zionism - Zionism and the Arab Muslims
• Zionism - The struggle for Palestine
• Zionism - Zionism and Israel
• Zionism - Anti-Zionism and post-Zionism
• Zionism - Non-Jewish Zionism
• Zionism - Relevant articles
• Zionism - Types of Zionism
• Zionism - Zionist institutes and organization
• Zionism - History of Zionism and Israel
• Zionism - Notes

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Buckley (Welsh: Bwcle) is a town in Flintshire, Wales, United Kingdom. It is the second largest town in Flintshire in terms of population and is 2 miles from Mold, the county town. It is located on the A549 road. Buckley - History. Buckley (the name comes from the Anglo-Saxon bok lee, meaning meadow, or field) was an Anglo-Saxon location, with some of its houses recorded in the Domesday Book of the 11th Century. However, the first documented evidence of its existence dates from 1 ...

Including:

• Buckley - History
• Buckley - Mining and pottery
• Buckley - Buckley dialect
• Buckley - The 'Buckley Panto'
• Buckley - Present day
• Buckley - Geography
• Buckley - The Jubilee
• Buckley - Royal Buckley Town Band
• Buckley - Schools
• Buckley - Music / culture

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Vis viva - Summary. Vis Viva (from the Latin for living force) is an obsolete scientific theory that served as an elementary and limited early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy. Proposed by Gottfried Leibniz over the period 1676-1689, the theory was hugely controversial as it seemed to oppose the theory of conservation of momentum advocated by Sir Isaac Newton and René Descartes. However, the two theories are now understood to be complementary. The theory w ...

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• Vis viva - Summary
• Vis viva - In detail

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William Jessop (23 January 1745 - 18 November 1814) was a noted English civil engineer, particularly famed for his work on canals, harbours and early railways in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Jessop was born in Devonport, Devon in 1745, the son of a shipwright known to leading civil engineer John Smeaton through his work on the Eddystone Lighthouse. When his father died, William Jessop was taken on as a pupil by Smeaton (who also acted as Jessop’s guardian), working on various canal schemes in Yorkshire. After working for some years as Smeaton's assistant, Jessop increa ...

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The term upper class refers to a group of people at the top of a social hierarchy. Often members of an upper class do not have to work for a living as they are supported by earned or inherited investments. Members of an upper class often have power over other people as employers or landlords, or sometimes as members of a government. The term "upper class" has had a complex range of meanings and usages, and in the 21st century many people are uncomfortable with it as a term and as a concept. In many traditional societies, member ...

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- total - % water - 15,500 km² - negligible - Total - Density - est. 1,103,686 (2002) - est. 71.2/km² The Chechen Republic (Russian: Чече́нская Респу́блика); Chechen: Нохчийн Республика/Noxçiyn [Nokhchiyn] Respublika), or, informally, Chechnya (Russian: Чечня́ Chechen: Нохчичьо/Noxçiyçö/Nokhchiycho), sometimes incorrectly refered to as Ichkeria, Chechnia ...

Including:

• Chechnya - History
• Chechnya - Early history
• Chechnya - Soviet rule
• Chechnya - First Chechen War
• Chechnya - Second Chechen War
• Chechnya - Politics
• Chechnya - Administrative divisions
• Chechnya - Districts
• Chechnya - Major settlements
• Chechnya - Geography
• Chechnya - Time zone
• Chechnya - Economy
• Chechnya - As of 2003
• Chechnya - Demographics

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The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa. It borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania on the north-east, Malawi on the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia to the south, and Angola on the west. Formerly Northern Rhodesia, the country is named after the Zambezi river. Zambia - History. The indigenous hunter-gatherer occupants of Zambia, (called Bushmen) began to be displaced or absorbed by more advanced migrating tribes about 2,000 years ago. T ...

Including:

• Zambia - History
• Zambia - Politics
• Zambia - Government
• Zambia - Constitution
• Zambia - Judiciary
• Zambia - Provinces
• Zambia - Military
• Zambia - Foreign relations
• Zambia - Education
• Zambia - Geography
• Zambia - Economy
• Zambia - Demographics
• Zambia - Culture
• Zambia - Miscellaneous topics

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Catastrophism is the theory that Earth has been affected by sudden, short-lived, violent events that were sometimes worldwide in scope. The dominant paradigm of geology has been gradualism, but a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed. Before gradualism, the dominant belief in many cultures of the creation and development of the world was essentially catastrophism. The biblical story of the Great Flood is a prime example of these beliefs. Earth's history was viewed as the result of an accumulation o ...

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• Catastrophism - Reference

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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ▶ (help·info) (IPA: /ˈgøːtə/) (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German novelist, dramatist, poet, humanist, scientist, philosopher, and for ten years chief minister of state at Weimar. Goethe was one of the paramount figures of German literature and European Neo-classicism and Romanticism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The author of Faust and ...

Including:

• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Life
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Works
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Historical importance
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - List of Works
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Novels
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Dramas
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Poems
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Nonfiction
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Other Works
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Quotations

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Urartu (Biainili in Urartian) was an ancient kingdom in eastern Anatolia, centred in the mountainous region around Lake Van (present-day Turkey), which existed from about 1000 BC, or earlier, until 585 BC. The name may correspond to the Biblical Ararat. At its apogee, Urartu stretched from northern Mesopotamia through the southern Caucasus, involving parts of present-day Armenia up to Lake Sevan. Its archaeological sites include Altintepe, Toprakkale, Patnos and Cavustepe. Urartu fortresses are found in Van ...

Including:

• Urartu - Name
• Urartu - History
• Urartu - Origins
• Urartu - Main period
• Urartu - Decadence
• Urartu - Arcaheological rediscovery
• Urartu - Economy and politics
• Urartu - Language
• Urartu - The Urartian legacy
• Urartu - Literature

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A chaise (the French for chair, through a transference from a sedan-chair to a wheeled vehicle) is a light two- or four-wheeled carriage with a movable hood or calash; the post-chaise was the fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses and with the driver riding postillion. Other related archives18th, 19th centuries, Chaise River, French, calash, carriage, chair, chaise longue, hood, horses

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A scythe is an agricultural hand tool for mowing and reaping grass or crops. It consists of a long (about 170 cm) wooden shaft called a snath (modern versions are sometimes made from metal and/or plastic) with a perpendicular handle at one end and another roughly in the middle. The handle at the end of the snath could be omitted but the handle in the middle of the snath is a must, as it is used to control the position of the blade. A long blade (roughly 60-80 cm, approx. 26"-30") with a slight curve perpendicular to the snath is mount ...

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Pewter is a metal alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent tin, with the remainder consisting of 1-4 percent copper, acting as a hardener, with the addition of lead for the lower grades of pewter. There were three grades: Fine, for eatingware, with 96-99 percent tin, and 1-4 percent copper; Trifle, also for eating and drinking utensils but duller in appearance, with 92 percent tin, 1-4 percent copper, and up to 4 percent lead; and Lay or Ley metal, not for eating or drinking utensils, which could contain up to 15 percent lead. Modern pewter mixes the tin with copper, ...

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