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18 Brumaire | A Wisdom Archive on 18 Brumaire | | 18 Brumaire A selection of articles related to 18 Brumaire | |
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18 Brumaire, 18 Brumaire, 18 Brumaire - Aftermath, 18 Brumaire - Context, 18 Brumaire - External references, 18 Brumaire - The events of 18 Brumaire in the year VIII, 18 Brumaire - The events of 19 Brumaire, Glossary of the French Revolution.
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| ARTICLES RELATED TO 18 Brumaire | | | |  18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - RestorationWhen Napoleon was succeeded by Louis XVIII in April 1814, Talleyrand was one of the key creators of the restoration of the Bourbons while opposing the new legislation of Louis's rule. Tsar Alexander would probably not have leaned that way, but Talleyrand wanted the restoration of Louis XVIII. Talleyrand was the chief French negotiator at the Congress of Vienna, and in that same year he signed the Treaty of Paris. It was due, in part, to his skills that the terms of the treaty were remarkably lenient towards France. At the start, only four co ...
See also:Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - Early Life, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - French Revolution, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - French Empire, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - Restoration, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - Character traits Read more here: » Charles Maurice de Talleyrand: Encyclopedia II - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - Restoration |
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| | | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Coup d'état - Types of coups Samuel P. Huntington has divided coups into three types (ignoring Luttwak's non-military coups)
Breakthrough coups - In which a revolutionary army overthrows a traditional government and creates a new bureaucratic elite. Breakthrough coups are generally led by non-commissioned officers (NCOs) or junior officers and only happen once. Examples include China in 1911, Egypt in 1952, Greece in 1967 and Liberia in 1980.
Guardian coups - These coups have been described as musical chairs. The stated aim ...
See also:Coup d'état, Coup d'état - History, Coup d'état - Recent forms of coup, Coup d'état - Types of coups, Coup d'état - Post-military-coup governments, Coup d'état - Important coups in the 19th century, Coup d'état - Important coups in the 20th century, Coup d'état - Recent coups and coup attempts, Coup d'état - Currently-serving leaders who came to power via coups, Coup d'état - Reference Read more here: » Coup d'état: Encyclopedia II - Coup d'état - Types of coups |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Coup d'état - Post-military-coup governments After the coup, the military is faced with the issue of the type of government to establish. In Latin America, it was common for the post-coup government to be led by a junta, a committee of the chiefs of staff of the various armed forces. A common form of African post-coup government is the revolutionary assembly, a quasi-legislative body made of members elected by the army. In Pakistan, the military leader ...
See also:Coup d'état, Coup d'état - History, Coup d'état - Recent forms of coup, Coup d'état - Types of coups, Coup d'état - Post-military-coup governments, Coup d'état - Important coups in the 19th century, Coup d'état - Important coups in the 20th century, Coup d'état - Recent coups and coup attempts, Coup d'état - Currently-serving leaders who came to power via coups, Coup d'état - Reference Read more here: » Coup d'état: Encyclopedia II - Coup d'état - Post-military-coup governments |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Early Middle Ages Western Europe emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, as barbarian invasions separated it from the rest of the Mediterranean, where the Eastern Roman Empire (a.k.a. Byzantine Empire) survived for another millennium. In the 7th century the Arab expansion brought Islamic cultures to the southern Mediterranean shores (from Turkey to Sicily and Spain), further enlarging the differences between the various Mediterranean civilizations. Huge amounts of technology and learning we ...
See also:History of Europe, History of Europe - The origins, History of Europe - The Greeks, History of Europe - Rome, History of Europe - Early Middle Ages, History of Europe - High Middle Ages, History of Europe - Later Middle Ages, History of Europe - Renaissance and Reformation, History of Europe - Colonial expansion, History of Europe - Early Modern period: 16th 17th and 18th century, History of Europe - The English Civil War and Unification with Scotland, History of Europe - English Commonwealth, History of Europe - Act of Union, History of Europe - The French Revolution, History of Europe - Napoleonic Wars, History of Europe - Congress of Vienna, History of Europe - The 19th century, History of Europe - Early 20th century: the World Wars, History of Europe - Late 20th century: the Cold War, History of Europe - Early 21st century: the European Union, History of Europe - Histories of present-day territories, History of Europe - Sources, History of Europe - Recommended reading Read more here: » History of Europe: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Early Middle Ages |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Rome Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only real challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, but its defeat in the end of the 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. The Roman Empire had its centre in ...
See also:History of Europe, History of Europe - The origins, History of Europe - The Greeks, History of Europe - Rome, History of Europe - Early Middle Ages, History of Europe - High Middle Ages, History of Europe - Later Middle Ages, History of Europe - Renaissance and Reformation, History of Europe - Colonial expansion, History of Europe - Early Modern period: 16th 17th and 18th century, History of Europe - The English Civil War and Unification with Scotland, History of Europe - English Commonwealth, History of Europe - Act of Union, History of Europe - The French Revolution, History of Europe - Napoleonic Wars, History of Europe - Congress of Vienna, History of Europe - The 19th century, History of Europe - Early 20th century: the World Wars, History of Europe - Late 20th century: the Cold War, History of Europe - Early 21st century: the European Union, History of Europe - Histories of present-day territories, History of Europe - Sources, History of Europe - Recommended reading Read more here: » History of Europe: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Rome |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Early 21st century: the European Union The process of European integration was slow due to the reluctance of most nation states to give up their sovereignty. However, the process began to accelerate in the early 21st century. Whereas the European Union started out as a loose economic alliance among European nations, the European Union took further steps to more closely integrate the member states, and make the EU into a more supranational organisation.
At the turn of the century, nations within the European Union had created a free trade zone and eliminated most travel bar ...
See also:History of Europe, History of Europe - The origins, History of Europe - The Greeks, History of Europe - Rome, History of Europe - Early Middle Ages, History of Europe - High Middle Ages, History of Europe - Later Middle Ages, History of Europe - Renaissance and Reformation, History of Europe - Colonial expansion, History of Europe - Early Modern period: 16th 17th and 18th century, History of Europe - The English Civil War and Unification with Scotland, History of Europe - English Commonwealth, History of Europe - Act of Union, History of Europe - The French Revolution, History of Europe - Napoleonic Wars, History of Europe - Congress of Vienna, History of Europe - The 19th century, History of Europe - Early 20th century: the World Wars, History of Europe - Late 20th century: the Cold War, History of Europe - Early 21st century: the European Union, History of Europe - Histories of present-day territories, History of Europe - Sources, History of Europe - Recommended reading Read more here: » History of Europe: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Early 21st century: the European Union |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Late 20th century: the Cold War World War I and especially World War II ended the pre-eminent position of western Europe. The map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided as it became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the capitalistic Western_countries and the communist Soviet Union. The U.S. and Western Europe (theUnited Kingdom, France, Italy, West Germany, etc.) established the NATO alliance as a protection against a possible Soviet invasion. Later, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, East Germany) establis ...
See also:History of Europe, History of Europe - The origins, History of Europe - The Greeks, History of Europe - Rome, History of Europe - Early Middle Ages, History of Europe - High Middle Ages, History of Europe - Later Middle Ages, History of Europe - Renaissance and Reformation, History of Europe - Colonial expansion, History of Europe - Early Modern period: 16th 17th and 18th century, History of Europe - The English Civil War and Unification with Scotland, History of Europe - English Commonwealth, History of Europe - Act of Union, History of Europe - The French Revolution, History of Europe - Napoleonic Wars, History of Europe - Congress of Vienna, History of Europe - The 19th century, History of Europe - Early 20th century: the World Wars, History of Europe - Late 20th century: the Cold War, History of Europe - Early 21st century: the European Union, History of Europe - Histories of present-day territories, History of Europe - Sources, History of Europe - Recommended reading Read more here: » History of Europe: Encyclopedia II - History of Europe - Late 20th century: the Cold War |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Henri Grégoire - Works Besides several political pamphlets, Grégoire was the author of:
Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siècle dernier jusqu'à l'époque actuelle (a vols., 1810)
Essai historique sur les libertés de l'église gallicane (1818)
De l'influence du Christianisme sur la condition des femmes (1821)
Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs, des rois, et d'autres princes (1824)
Histoire du manag ...
See also:Henri Grégoire, Henri Grégoire - Early life, Henri Grégoire - Constitutional bishop, Henri Grégoire - Advocate of Racial Equality, Henri Grégoire - Political Career after Thermidor, Henri Grégoire - During the Restoration, Henri Grégoire - Religious views, Henri Grégoire - Works, Henri Grégoire - Reference Read more here: » Henri Grégoire: Encyclopedia II - Henri Grégoire - Works |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Henri Grégoire - Religious views Grégoire remained a devout Catholic, fulfilling all his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he refused to budge from his revolutionary principles. During his last illness he confessed to his parish curé, a priest of Jansenist sympathies, expressing his desire for the last sacraments of the Church. These the Archbishop of Paris would only concede on condition that he retract his oath to the Civil ...
See also:Henri Grégoire, Henri Grégoire - Early life, Henri Grégoire - Constitutional bishop, Henri Grégoire - Advocate of Racial Equality, Henri Grégoire - Political Career after Thermidor, Henri Grégoire - During the Restoration, Henri Grégoire - Religious views, Henri Grégoire - Works, Henri Grégoire - Reference Read more here: » Henri Grégoire: Encyclopedia II - Henri Grégoire - Religious views |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - From Consulate to empire Bonaparte, though an emperor, was in a relatively dangerous position compared to other authoritarian European monarchs of the time. Aware that if the French people could overthrow one monarch, they could overthrow another, Bonaparte used propaganda to align the opinions of the French people with his foreign policy. He had no particular ideology, and did not claim to be an absolute monarch. Although he was an autocrat, he was far less autocratic than most other authoritarian monarchs of the time, and had less power than such modern dictators ...
See also:First French Empire, First French Empire - Origins, First French Empire - From Consulate to empire, First French Empire - Early victories, First French Empire - At the crossroads, First French Empire - Intrigues unrest and corruption, First French Empire - The endgame Read more here: » First French Empire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - From Consulate to empire |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career He was born Napoleone Buonaparte (in Corsican, Nabolione or Nabulione) in the city of Ajaccio on Corsica on 15 August 1769, only one year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He later adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte.
His family were minor Italian nobility living in Corsica. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, an attorney, was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI of France in 1778, where he remained for a number of years. The dominant influen ...
See also:Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources Read more here: » Napoleon I of France: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - The victorious general
Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot.
In 1795, Bonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organized an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October. Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace. He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who later became his brother-in-law. He utilized the artillery the following day to repel the attackers. He later boasted that he ...
See also:Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources Read more here: » Napoleon I of France: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - The victorious general |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Napoleonic Wars - The First and Second Coalitions The first attempt to crush the new French republic was made in 1792-1797 by the First Coalition, which consisted of:
Austria,
Piedmont,
Prussia,
Spain and
the United Kingdom.
It was defeated by the French efforts, which consisted of general conscription (levée en masse), military reform and total war. Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian campaign in 1796 and 1797 successfully knocked Piedmont out of the war. Piedmont had been one of the original members of the Coalition and had b ...
See also:Napoleonic Wars, Napoleonic Wars - Political effects of the wars, Napoleonic Wars - Military legacy of the wars, Napoleonic Wars - The First and Second Coalitions, Napoleonic Wars - The Third Coalition, Napoleonic Wars - The Fourth Coalition, Napoleonic Wars - The Fifth Coalition, Napoleonic Wars - The Sixth Coalition, Napoleonic Wars - Gunboat War, Napoleonic Wars - The Seventh Coalition Read more here: » Napoleonic Wars: Encyclopedia II - Napoleonic Wars - The First and Second Coalitions |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - Legacy Napoleon is credited with introducing the concept of the modern professional conscript army to Europe, an innovation which other states eventually followed.
In France, Napoleon is seen by some as having ended lawlessness and disorder in France, and that the Napoleonic Wars also served to export the Revolution to the rest of Europe; the movements of national unification and the rise of the nation state, notably in Italy and Germany, may have been prec ...
See also:Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources Read more here: » Napoleon I of France: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - Legacy |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children Napoleon was married twice:
March 9, 1796 to Joséphine de Beauharnais. He formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie after assuming the throne to arrange "dynastic" marriages for them. He had her daughter Hortense marry his brother, Louis. Joséphine agreed to divorce so he could remarry in the hopes of producing an heir; it was the first under the Napoleonic Code.
March 11, 1810 by proxy to Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria to legitimize the impending birth of their child, then in a ceremony on April 1. ...
See also:Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources Read more here: » Napoleon I of France: Encyclopedia II - Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - French Revolution - Causes A number of factors led to the revolution; to some extent the old order succumbed to its own rigidity in the face of a changing world; to some extent, it fell to the ambitions of a rising bourgeoisie, allied with aggrieved peasants, wage-earners, and individuals of all classes who had come under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. As the revolution proceeded and as power devolved from the monarchy to legislative bodies, the conflicting interests of these initially allied groups would ...
See also:French Revolution, French Revolution - Causes, French Revolution - History, French Revolution - The Estates-General of 1789, French Revolution - The National Assembly, French Revolution - The National Constituent Assembly, French Revolution - The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy, French Revolution - The Convention, French Revolution - The Directory, French Revolution - Other revolutions in French history Read more here: » French Revolution: Encyclopedia II - French Revolution - Causes |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - Glossary of the French Revolution - Symbols
Glossary of the French Revolution - Cockades.
Cockades (Fr: cocardes) were rosettes or ribbons worn as a badge, typically on a hat.
Black cockade - Primarily, the cockade of the anti-revolutionary aristocracy. Also, earlier, the cockade of the American Revolution.
Green cockade - As the "color of hope", the symbol of the Revolution in its early days, before the adoption of the tricolor.
Tricolor cockade - The symbol of the Revolution (from shortly after the Bastille fell) and ...
See also:Glossary of the French Revolution, Glossary of the French Revolution - The three estates, Glossary of the French Revolution - Social classes, Glossary of the French Revolution - Constitutions, Glossary of the French Revolution - Governmental structures, Glossary of the French Revolution - Political groupings, Glossary of the French Revolution - Ancien régime taxes, Glossary of the French Revolution - Months of the French Revolutionary Calendar, Glossary of the French Revolution - Events commonly known by their Gregorian dates, Glossary of the French Revolution - Events commonly known by their Revolutionary dates, Glossary of the French Revolution - War, Glossary of the French Revolution - Symbols, Glossary of the French Revolution - Cockades, Glossary of the French Revolution - Religion, Glossary of the French Revolution - Other terms Read more here: » Glossary of the French Revolution: Encyclopedia II - Glossary of the French Revolution - Symbols |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - French Republican Calendar - Converting to Gregorian Calendar The calendar was abolished in the year XIV (1805). After this date, opinions seem to differ on the method by which the leap years would have determined if the calendar were still in force. There are several hypotheses used to convert dates to the Gregorian calendar, of which these three seem to be the most significant:
The leap years would continue to vary in order to ensure that each year the autumnal equinox falls on 1 Vendémiaire, as was the case from year I to year XIV.
The leap year would have jumped after year 15 ...
See also:French Republican Calendar, French Republican Calendar - Criticism and shortcomings of the calendar, French Republican Calendar - The months, French Republican Calendar - The ten days of the week, French Republican Calendar - The days of the year, French Republican Calendar - Autumn, French Republican Calendar - Winter, French Republican Calendar - Spring, French Republican Calendar - Summer, French Republican Calendar - Extra days, French Republican Calendar - Converting to Gregorian Calendar, French Republican Calendar - The French Republican calendar in fiction Read more here: » French Republican Calendar: Encyclopedia II - French Republican Calendar - Converting to Gregorian Calendar |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - At the crossroads After the Treaties of Tilsit, however (July 1807), instead of trying to reconcile Europe to his grandeur, Napoleon had but one thought: to make use of his success to destroy Britain and complete his Italian dominion. It was from Berlin, on 21 November 1806, that he had dated the first decree of a continental blockade, a conception intended to paralyze his inveterate rival, but which on the contrary caused his own fall by its immoderate extension of the Empire. To the coalition of the northern powers he added the league of the Baltic and Medi ...
See also:First French Empire, First French Empire - Origins, First French Empire - From Consulate to empire, First French Empire - Early victories, First French Empire - At the crossroads, First French Empire - Intrigues unrest and corruption, First French Empire - The endgame Read more here: » First French Empire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - At the crossroads |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - Early victories In the first of these campaigns Bonaparte swept away the remnants of the old Holy Roman Empire, and out of its shattered fragments created in southern Germany the vassal states of Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Saxony, which he attached to France under the name of the [[Confederation of the Rhine]. The treaty of Pressburg, however, signed on the (26 December 1805) gave France nothing but the danger of a more centralised and less docile Germany. On the other hand, Napoleon's creation of the Kingdom of Italy, his annexation ...
See also:First French Empire, First French Empire - Origins, First French Empire - From Consulate to empire, First French Empire - Early victories, First French Empire - At the crossroads, First French Empire - Intrigues unrest and corruption, First French Empire - The endgame Read more here: » First French Empire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - Early victories |
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| | | | | 18 Brumaire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - The endgame (see main articles on Napoleon's Invasion of Russia and the Sixth Coalition )
Napoleon had hardly succeeded in putting down the revolt in Germany when the tsar of Russia himself headed a European insurrection against the ruinous tyranny of the continental blockade. To put a stop to this, to ensure his own access to the Mediterranean and exclude his chief rival, Napoleon made a desperate effort in 1812 against a country as invincible as Russia. Despite his victorious advance, the taking of Smolensk, the victory on the Moskva, an ...
See also:First French Empire, First French Empire - Origins, First French Empire - From Consulate to empire, First French Empire - Early victories, First French Empire - At the crossroads, First French Empire - Intrigues unrest and corruption, First French Empire - The endgame Read more here: » First French Empire: Encyclopedia II - First French Empire - The endgame |
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