1050 BC

Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon being the primary alloying material. Carbon acts as a hardening agent, preventing iron atoms, which are naturally arranged in a lattice, from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of carbon and its distribution in the alloy controls qualities such as the hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle. One classical definition is t ...

Including:

• Steel - Iron and steel
• Steel - History of iron and steelmaking
• Steel - The Iron Age
• Steel - Developments in China
• Steel - India
• Steel - Middle East
• Steel - Ironworking in medieval Europe
• Steel - Ironworking in early modern Europe
• Steel - Industrial steelmaking
• Steel - Types of steel
• Steel - Production methods

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Et-Tell is an archaeological site in Israel that is popularly thought to be the Biblical city of Ai. Et-Tell - Location and identification. The site of et-Tell (Arabic for "the ruin-heap") is about 3 km east of the modern village of Beitin (Bethel), atop a watershed plateau overlooking the Jordan Valley and the city of Jericho 14 km east. Edward Robinson suggested in 1838 that et-Tell could be the location of the Biblical city of Ai, as did Charles Wilson in 1866, on the evidence of Biblical r ...

Including:

• Et-Tell - Location and identification
• Et-Tell - Excavation history
• Et-Tell - Settlement phases
• Et-Tell - Comparisons with the Biblical account
• Et-Tell - External references

Read more here: » Et-Tell: Encyclopedia - Et-Tell

Cumae (Cuma, in Italian) is an ancient Greek settlement lying to the northwest of Naples in the Italian region of Campania. The settlement is believed to have been founded in the 8th century BC by Greeks from the city of Cuma and Chalkis in Euboea upon the earlier dwellings of indigenous, Iron-Age peoples whom they supplanted. Eusebius placed Cumae's Greek foundation at 1050 BC. Its name comes from the Greek word Kymé, meaning wave - perhaps in reference to the big wav ...

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The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and th ...

Including:

• Art in Ancient Greece - Definition
• Art in Ancient Greece - Periods
• Art in Ancient Greece - Survivals
• Art in Ancient Greece - Pottery
• Art in Ancient Greece - Sculpture
• Art in Ancient Greece - Architecture
• Art in Ancient Greece - Coin design

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The history of Ancient Greek pottery is divided stylistically into periods: the Protogeometric from about 1050 BC; the Geometric from about 900 BC; the Late Geometric or Archaic from about 750 BC; the Black Figure from the early 7th century BC; and the Red Figure from about 530 BC. The range of colours which could be used on pots was restricted by the technology of firing: black, white, red, and yellow were the most common. In the three earlier periods, the pots were left their nat ...

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Pottery of Ancient Greece, Pottery of Ancient Greece - Uses of pottery in Ancient Greece, Pottery of Ancient Greece - History of Ancient Greek pottery, Pottery of Ancient Greece - Types of Ancient Greek pottery

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"Kings who dwelled in tents" Ikunum Tudiya Adamu Yangi Suhlamu Harharu Mandaru Imsu HAR-su Didanu Hana Zuabu Nuabu Abazu Belu Azarah Ushpia (ca. 2020 BC) "Kings who were forefathers" (listed in reverse order by the Assyrian King List) Apiashal son of Ushpia Hale son of Apiashal Samani son of Hale Hayani son of Samani Ilu-Mer ...

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Kings of Assyria, Kings of Assyria - Early Period, Kings of Assyria - Old Assyrian Period, Kings of Assyria - Middle Assyrian Period, Kings of Assyria - Neo-Assyrian Period

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It is generally assumed there was little internal armed conflict on Minoan Crete. In the past, this condition was known as "Pax Minoica," or "The Minoan Peace." As with much of Minoan Crete, however, it is hard to draw any obvious conclusions from the evidence. One sometimes feels that the civilization is much like a Rorschach inkblot, in that intepretations often reflect more of the intepreter than the civilization itself. Many argue that there is little evidence for ancient Minoan fortifications. But as S. Alexiou has pointed out (i ...

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Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

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Sculpture is by far the most important surviving form of Ancient Greek art, although only a small fragment of Greek sculptural output has survived. Greek sculpture, often in the form of Roman copies, was immensely influential during the Italian Renaissance, and remained the “classic” model for European sculpture until the advent of modernism in the late 19th century. The Greeks decided at a very early period that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Since they saw their gods as hav ...

See also:

Art in Ancient Greece, Art in Ancient Greece - Definition, Art in Ancient Greece - Periods, Art in Ancient Greece - Survivals, Art in Ancient Greece - Pottery, Art in Ancient Greece - Sculpture, Art in Ancient Greece - Architecture, Art in Ancient Greece - Coin design

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The earliest settlement phase known at et-Tell, called "Pre-Urban", coincides with the Early Bronze Age I and lasted from about 3200 BC to 3100 BC. In this period, an unfortified village (about 200 m in diameter, large for the EBI) was settled at the site, with accompanying tombs dug in caves on the northeastern slopes of the hill. Pottery styles from this period show both indigenous and foreign cultural influences and may signify a mingling of peoples from nearby areas and newcomers emigrating from more distant regions. Over time, the foreign element ...

See also:

Et-Tell, Et-Tell - Location and identification, Et-Tell - Excavation history, Et-Tell - Settlement phases, Et-Tell - Comparisons with the Biblical account, Et-Tell - External references

Read more here: » Et-Tell: Encyclopedia II - Et-Tell - Settlement phases

Iron was in limited use long before it became possible to smelt it. The first signs of iron use come from Ancient Egypt and Sumer, where around 4000 BC small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites (see Iron: History). About 6% of meteorites are composed of an iron-nickel alloy, and iron recovered from meteorite falls allowed ancien ...

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Steel, Steel - Iron and steel, Steel - History of iron and steelmaking, Steel - The Iron Age, Steel - Developments in China, Steel - India, Steel - Middle East, Steel - Ironworking in medieval Europe, Steel - Ironworking in early modern Europe, Steel - Industrial steelmaking, Steel - Types of steel, Steel - Production methods

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Prehistory of Cyprus - Early Bronze Age. The new era was introduced by people from Anatolia who came to Cyprus because of disturbances in Asia Minor. It is only natural that we observe the first vivid vestiges of this civilisation around 2300 BC in the northern part of the island, from where it spread south and west. As the newcomers knew how to work with copper they soon moved to the so-called copperbelt of the island, that is the foothills of the Troodos mountains. This movement reflects the increased interest in the raw material that was going to be so closely conn ...

See also:

Prehistory of Cyprus, Prehistory of Cyprus - Epipalaeolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Aceramic Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Ceramic Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Chalcolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Early Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Middle Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Late Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Iron Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Literature, Prehistory of Cyprus - Reference

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The Iron Age follows the Submycenean period (1125-1050 BC) or Late Bronze age and is divided into the: Geometric 1050-700 Archaic 700-525 In the ensuing Early Iron Age Cyprus becomes predominantly Greek. Pottery shapes and decoration show a marked Aegean inspiration although Oriental ideas creep in from time to time. New burial customs with rock-cut chamber tombs having a long "dromos" (a ramp leading gradually towards the entrance) along with new religious beliefs speak in favour of the arrival of people ...

See also:

Prehistory of Cyprus, Prehistory of Cyprus - Epipalaeolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Aceramic Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Ceramic Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Chalcolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Early Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Middle Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Late Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Iron Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Literature, Prehistory of Cyprus - Reference

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In Minoan art, women vastly outnumber men (see archaeologists Goodison and Morris, 1998, p. 115). Women are shown seated on thrones, and in commanding positions. Women are often saluted by people and/or animals. Whereas depictions exist of men showing deference to women, not one shows women deferring to men. Unlike their contemporaries, who possessed obvious “strong-man” male rulers, the Minoans show almost no trace of male rule at all. "In Minoan imagery ... female figures seem preeminent. Males, to be sure, appear on frescoed wa ...

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Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

Read more here: » Minoan civilization: Encyclopedia II - Minoan civilization - Politics

Minoan men wore loincloths and kilts. Women wore robes that were open to the navel and had short sleeves and flounced skirts. The patterns on clothes emphasized symmetrical geometric designs. The statues of priestesses in Minoan culture and frescoes showing men and women participating in the same sports (usually bull-leaping) lead some archaeologists to believe that men and women held equal social status, and that inheritance might even have been matrilineal. The frescos include many depictions of people, with the sexes distinguished by colour: the men's skin is reddish-brown, the women's white. The colour ...

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Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

Read more here: » Minoan civilization: Encyclopedia II - Minoan civilization - Culture

The Minoans worshipped goddesses, (see Rodney Castleden, Minoans, 1994; Goodison and Morris, Ancient Goddesses, 1998; Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Religion, 1993; etc.). Although there is some indication of male gods, depictions of Minoan goddesses vastly outnumber depictions of anything that could be considered a Minoan god. There seem to be several goddesses including a Mother Goddess of fertility, a Mistress of the Animals, a protectress of cities, the household, the harvest, and the underworld, and more. Some would argue ...

See also:

Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

Read more here: » Minoan civilization: Encyclopedia II - Minoan civilization - Religion

The Minoan cities were connected with stone-paved roads, formed from blocks cut with bronze saws. Streets were drained and water and sewage facilities were available to the upper class, through clay pipes. Minoan buildings often had flat tiled roofs; plaster, wood, or flagstone floors, and stood 2-3 stories high. They would construct the lower walls of stone and rubble and use mudbrick for higher el ...

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Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

Read more here: » Minoan civilization: Encyclopedia II - Minoan civilization - Technology

The great collection of Minoan art is in the museum at Heraklion, near Knossos on the north shore of Crete. Minoan art, with other remains of material culture especially the sequence of ceramic styles, has defined the three phases of Minoan culture defined by archaeologists, each phase with its defining character. The first, Early Minoan phase (EMI, EMII and EMIII) rose out of local Neolithic culture about 2500 BC and lasted until about 2300 BC. The Middle Minoan culture (MMI, MMII and MMIII) lasted from about 2150 BC to 1700 BC. The ...

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Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

Read more here: » Minoan civilization: Encyclopedia II - Minoan civilization - Art

Prehistory of Cyprus - Aceramic Neolithic. The first undisputed settlement occurred in the 9th (or perhaps 10th) millennium BC from the Levant (PPNB). The first settlers were already agriculturalists, but did not yet produce pottery (aceramic Neolithic). They introduced the dog, sheep, goats and maybe cattle and pigs as well as numerous wild animals like foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) that were previously unknown on the island. The PPNB settlers built round houses ...

See also:

Prehistory of Cyprus, Prehistory of Cyprus - Epipalaeolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Aceramic Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Ceramic Neolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Chalcolithic, Prehistory of Cyprus - Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Early Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Middle Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Late Bronze Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Iron Age, Prehistory of Cyprus - Literature, Prehistory of Cyprus - Reference

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The Minoans raised cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and grew wheat, barley, vetch, chickpeas, cultivated grapes, figs, olives, and grew poppies, for poppyseed and perhaps opium. The Minoans domesticated bees, and adopted pomegranates and quinces from the Near East, though not lemons and oranges as is often imagined. They developed Mediterranean polyculture, the practice of growing more than one crop at a time, and as a result of their more varied and healthier diet, the population increased. Farmers used wooden plows, bound by leather to wood ...

See also:

Minoan civilization, Minoan civilization - Geography and climate, Minoan civilization - Chronological history, Minoan civilization - Theories of failure, Minoan civilization - Agriculture, Minoan civilization - Palaces, Minoan civilization - Art, Minoan civilization - Culture, Minoan civilization - Language and writing, Minoan civilization - Politics, Minoan civilization - Religion, Minoan civilization - Warfare and The Minoan Peace, Minoan civilization - Technology, Minoan civilization - Archeological Sites, Minoan civilization - Note

Read more here: » Minoan civilization: Encyclopedia II - Minoan civilization - Agriculture

Austenite (γ-iron; hard) Bainite Martensite Cementite (iron carbide; Fe3C) Ferrite (α-iron; soft) Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite) Carbon steel (up to 2.1% carbon) Stainless steel (alloy with chromium) Tool steel (very hard; heat-treated) Cast iron (>2.1% carbon) Wrought iron (almost no carbon) Ductile iron Iron, like most metals, is not found in the Earth's crust in a native state. Iron can be found in the crust only in combinat ...

See also:

Steel, Steel - Iron and steel, Steel - History of iron and steelmaking, Steel - The Iron Age, Steel - Developments in China, Steel - India, Steel - Middle East, Steel - Ironworking in medieval Europe, Steel - Ironworking in early modern Europe, Steel - Industrial steelmaking, Steel - Types of steel, Steel - Production methods

Read more here: » Steel: Encyclopedia II - Steel - Iron and steel